Chapter One
In September 1915 the first workable prototype for a tracked armoured vehicle was produced by William Foster & Company, a British agricultural engineering company based in Lincoln. Known as ‘Little Willie’, the machine was quickly followed by a second prototype, dubbed ‘Mother’ or ‘Big Willie’. The latter was sufficiently successful that Fosters and the Metropolitan Amalgamated Railway Carriage & Wagon Company Limited were asked to build 175 units. Although they were officially designated as ‘tank, Mk I’ for reasons of security, the machines were initially described as ‘water carriers for Mesopotamia’ – thus giving rise to the name ‘tank’.
Looking nothing like the tanks with which we have become familiar, these early machines consisted of a huge rhomboidal box-like hull of riveted boilerplate, with unsprung steel tracks wrapped around the perimeter. Tanks saw their first action at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette on 15 September 1916. The battle lasted for one week and, although expectations were high that the deployment of the tank would prove decisive, the performance of the vehicles was erratic and it would be fair to say that the operation had mixed success. Many felt that the tank needed more improvement before it could be considered ready for use on the battlefield and the design of the machine evolved rapidly following this first deployment.
By 1917 the Mk VIII was being constructed to a standardised design in both Britain and the USA, but it had quickly become obvious that the massive, heavy tanks that had evolved from the Mk I were not suitable for every application. ‘Medium’ tanks started to appear at the beginning of that same year, against a War Office requirement for a lighter, faster machine that would complement the slower ‘heavies’. The first of these, the twin-engined medium Mk A or ‘Whippet’, armed with the turret from an Austin armoured car, went into action in March 1918, covering the retreat of the British infantry divisions that were recoiling from the German onslaught of the Spring Offensive.
The signing of the Armistice saw tank production all but abandoned in Britain. Although some new tank designs appeared during the interwar period, with the heavy tanks of the First World War being superseded by much lighter, more agile designs, the development process never seemed to be more than half-hearted. By the mid-1930s Germany had probably gained the upper hand in tank design, producing light tanks that were designed to support infantry and by 1939/40 Germany’s Blitzkrieg tactics had shown what tanks and infantry could achieve in the hands of well-trained commanders who understood their strengths and weaknesses.
Things had taken a slightly different turn in Britain. In 1938 British War Office doctrine settled on two types of tank, described as ‘cruiser’ tanks and ‘infantry’ tanks. Cruiser tanks – sometimes known as ‘cavalry’ tanks – were seen as medium-weight, fast machines, lightly armoured and lightly gunned, which could make reconnaissance forays deep into enemy territory, much as horse-mounted cavalry had in former conflicts. Infantry tanks, on the other hand, were well protected and lightly armed, usually with no more than a machine gun; the weight of armour meant that they were appreciably slower than the cruisers but, since the role of the infantry tank was to support foot soldiers during an attack, this was considered unimportant. Following this doctrine, new designs, many of which were totally unsatisfactory, were produced during the late 1930s and during the conflict itself. In addition, a shortage of production capacity saw American tanks used by the British Army, including the Stuart M3/M5 light tank, the Lee/Grant M3 medium, and the iconic M4 Sherman medium.
It is interesting to contrast German and British attitudes to tank design during the Second World War. Disregarding captured enemy tanks, between 1939 and 1945 Germany deployed six major types of tank, designated Panzerkampfwagen I, or PzKpfw I through to PzKpfw VI. Modifications were frequently made during the service life of each type, but the new designs that appeared were the result of improvements to firepower, mobility or protection. For example, PzKpfw I was a light tank armed with twin 7.92mm machine guns, while the PzKpfw II mounted a 20mm gun. The medium PzKpfw III of 1937 formed the primary weapon of the German Panzer divisions and remained in production until 1943; on its introduction it was armed with a 37mm gun but this was eventually superseded by a 50mm weapon. The medium-weight PzKpfw IV and the heavy/medium PzKpfw V Panther were both armed with a 75mm gun, as was the prototype of the PzKpfw VI Tiger, whereas the production version of the PzKpfw VI, and the later Königstiger (King Tiger), were both equipped with the fearsome 88mm gun.
In the early years of the conflict the British approach to tank development appeared a very hit-and-miss affair, with each new design apparently owing little to its predecessors. As regards firepower, it would be fair to say that British tanks were generally less well armed and less well protected than their German counterparts. British cruisers dating from the opening years of the conflict were armed only with a 2-pounder (40mm) anti-tank gun and, while this eventually gave way to the 6-pounder (57mm), and then to the 75mm and 76mm weapons of the American M4 Sherman, for most of the war neither Britain nor the USA managed to produce a tank that could take on the PzKpfw VI Tiger or the formidable Königstiger.
It was not until the end of the conflict that the British Army finally had access to a tank that could compete with the German Panzers on more-or-less equal terms: in fact, there were two. The first of these was the Anglo-American Sherman Firefly – essentially an M4 Sherman medium tank into which had been fitted the British 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun; the other was the Comet, a British cruiser tank armed with a 77mm gun. Had the A41 Centurion, which was originally described as a cruiser tank, been ready in time, it might also have helped to tip the balance.
Following VE-Day large numbers of tanks of all types remained in service with the British Army, including quantities of Shermans and Stuarts; some had been converted to specialised roles, while others were placed into storage. Only the Comet, together with the Cromwell cruiser and the Churchill infantry tank, saw any significant service into the immediate post-war years. The appearance of the Centurion in late 1945, followed by its gradual introduction into service the following year, saw the older tanks gradually being replaced. Ultimately the Centurion went on to prove itself one of the best tank designs of the post-war period, seeing combat with the British Army in Korea as well as with the Israeli Defence Force and the Indian Army.
It was at about the time that the Centurion entered service that the British system of referring to tanks by an ‘A’ number, introduced in 1926, was discontinued and for the next twenty-five years or so tanks were identified by their ‘FV’ (‘fighting vehicle’) number. This was a reference assigned by the Fighting Vehicle Design Department (FVDD) and later by its successor, the Fighting Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (FVRDE). While it may not have been the original intention, the FV numbers, which were actually drawing office references, came to be regarded as definitive codes identifying both the families of vehicles and the specific variants. The practice of assigning names to the tanks, which dated back to 1940, was continued and the curious custom of selecting names beginning with the letter C also persisted.
The Centurion was originally assigned the reference A41, but later became known as the FV4000 series. Although it was an excellent design, it was felt that a heavier tank was also required and by 1950 work was well advanced on the colossal Conqueror, a heavy gun tank with a maximum thickness of armour of 178mm, armed with a 120mm gun. Produced in response to the appearance in 1945 of the Soviet IS-3 (a huge machine with a maximum thickness of armour of 132mm, equipped with a hard-hitting 122mm gun), the Conqueror was intended to provide long-range fire and anti-tank support to Centurion regiments. However, it was a victim of its own size and weight, and was never considered satisfactory; eventually the Chieftain, which followed many of the successful design principles of the Centurion, replaced both the Conqueror and the Centurion itself.
By the early 1980s the Chieftain had been superseded by the Challenger 1, the vehicle by now described as a main battle tank (MBT). This, in turn, was replaced by the all-new Challenger 2 after the First Gulf War.
The concept of light tanks had fallen into disrepute before the end of the Second World War, only to be revived in the early 1960s when the aluminium-armoured ‘combat vehicle, reconnaissance, tracked’ – or CVR(T) – appeared. Designed by the Military Vehicles Engineering Establishment (MVEE) and subsequently licensed to Alvis Vehicles, the basic chassis has been adapted to a number of roles, with the Scorpion, Scimitar and Stormer all equipped for use in what is frequently described as the ‘light tank’ role. By 1996 more than 3,500 examples had been built for British Army use as well as for export, and many remain in service to this day.
Finally, the GKN Warrior mechanised infantry combat vehicle (MICV) provides a modern application of the infantry tank concept. Originally described as the MCV-80, and resembling a medium-sized gun tank, the vehicle effectively combines two roles, acting initially as an armoured personnel carrier (APC) and then providing supporting firepower from a turret-mounted 30mm RARDEN cannon once the troops have disembarked.
From its first appearance on the Western Front, it had taken almost twenty-five years for the tank to come of age, but there are those who predict that the age of the tank is over and that the machine has become something of an anachronism in the face of today’s asymmetric warfare. However, there have been enormous technological advances in various areas which combine to make the modern tank a formidable and well-protected force on the battlefield. NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) filtration systems have made it possible for crews to survive the deployment of tactical nuclear and chemical or biological weapons. The widespread use of electronics has improved night-vision, target acquisition and fire-control issues, while the development of high-performance anti-armour ordnance (including kinetic-energy long-rod penetrator and depleted uranium penetrator rounds) has made enemy armour considerably more vulnerable. At the same time the use of advanced armour systems such as reactive armour and Chobham ceramic composites has reduced the chances of the modern battle tank being compromised by all but an enemy with comparable technological advancement.
British Challenger tanks were used in both Gulf Wars and, despite reports that the numbers of tanks are likely to be reduced by 40 per cent under the 2011 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR), nevertheless the British Army will continue to have access to more than 200 Challenger main battle tanks for the foreseeable future. Elsewhere, Canadian, Danish and Dutch troops have all used tanks in Afghanistan during the present conflict, and a recent report (November 2010) suggested that the US Army was planning to deploy fourteen Abrams M1A2 main battle tanks to southern Afghanistan, where fighting against Taliban militants is at its fiercest.
Perhaps reports of the death of the main battle tank have been greatly exaggerated!
Dating from September 1915 and built by William Foster of Lincoln, the first workable prototype for a tracked armoured vehicle was dubbed ‘Little Willie’. This iconic machine has survived, and forms part of the Tank Museum collection. (Andrew Skudder)
Tanks saw their first action at Flers-Courcelette on 15 September 1916. Although the operation was not entirely successful, the Army Chiefs of Staff were sufficiently impressed to order more machines, and development continued apace. In March 1917 five Mk II tanks were used as development ‘mules’ to try out various transmission systems, with the engine of the tank shown here driving the tracks through a Williams-Janney hydraulic system, using pumps with adjustable swash plates to alter the speed. (Warehouse Collection)
The British may have invented the tank but, in the form of the Renault FT-17, it was the French who produced the first tank to mount a revolving turret carrying a heavy gun. Some 1,600 of these machines remained in service with the French Army until at least 1939. (Warehouse Collection)
This light tank, the Mk VIA, is typical of the British armour that was in service when the British Expeditionary Force set out for France in September 1939; with thin armour and nothing more lethal than a .50in calibre machine gun, the design was vulnerable to enemy fire and production ended in 1940. (Warehouse Collection)
Alongside the quickly discredited light tanks, the British Army also fielded so-called infantry and cruiser tanks, each with a differing role. A small number of examples of the infantry tank, the Mk I or Matilda, also went to France in 1940, but most were confined to training. (Warehouse Collection)
Introduced in 1942 and initially armed with a 6-pounder (57mm) main gun, the Cromwell cruiser tank was one of the better British designs of the period, and some remained in service into the postwar years. (Warehouse Collection)
The German Tiger (PzKpfw VI) was a formidable machine. With its 88mm gun and a maximum 100mm of armour, it was better armed and better protected than almost anything the Allies could throw against it. (Warehouse Collection)
Introduced in 1944, the Königstiger (King Tiger or Tiger II), was the best protected and most heavily armed tank of the Second World War, but it was both unreliable and not available in large enough numbers. This example has the Henschel turret, which was not adopted for production. (Warehouse Collection)
Also dating from 1944, the British Comet was effectively a Cromwell on which was mounted a larger cast turret and a new turret ring, designed to accommodate a new Vickers 77mm gun. An excellent hard-hitting design, the Comet remained in service until 1958. (Warehouse Collection)
The Soviet IS-3 heavy tank appeared in 1945 and, with its maximum 230mm thickness of armour and 122mm gun, was a real game-changer. It forced both Britain and the USA at least partially to rethink their approach to tank design. (Warehouse Collection)
Armed initially with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun, the British Centurion came just too late to have any effect on the outcome of the war in Europe, but it was an excellent design that remained in production until 1962. (Warehouse Collection)
Entering service from 1967, the Chieftain replaced both the Centurion and the unsuccessful Conqueror heavy tank, the latter produced in response to the threat of the Soviet IS-3. (Tank Museum)
By the early 1980s the Chieftain was being superseded by the Challenger 1. Originally developed for Iran under the name Shir, it was effectively an upgraded Chieftain, powered by a Rolls-Royce V12 engine. (Warehouse Collection)
With a 30mm RARDEN cannon, the Warrior infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is not a tank in the conventional sense of the word. But the vehicle is more than capable of providing fire support to infantry and, with an optional 105mm gun, can also engage enemy light armour. (Warehouse Collection)