Abbreviations Used in the Notes
AAF American air force
ACAS assistant chief of air staff
ACS Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Rome
AEAF Allied Expeditionary Air Force
AFHRA Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, AL
AHB Air Historical Branch, Northolt, UK
AI Air Intelligence (UK)
BA-B Bundesarchiv-Berlin
BA-MA Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Freiburg im Breisgau
BBSU British Bombing Survey Unit
BN Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris
BOPs Bomber Operations
CamUL Cambridge University Library
CAS chief of the air staff (UK)
CCAC Churchill College Archive Centre, Cambridge, UK
CCO Christ Church, Oxford
CCS Combined Chiefs of Staff
CD civil defense
C-in-C commander in chief
CIOS Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee
CoS chief(s) of staff
DBOps director of bomber operations (UK)
DCAS deputy chief of the air staff (UK)
DDBOps deputy director of bomber operations (UK)
DoI Department of the Interior
DVA Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart
EDS Enemy Document Section
FDRL Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, NY
FIAT Field Intelligence Agencies Technical
GAF German Air Force
GL Generalluftzeugmeister (air force quartermaster-general)
HMSO His/Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
IAC Italian Armistice Commission
IWM Imperial War Museum, London
JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff
JIC Joint Intelligence Committee (UK)
JIGSAW Joint Inter-Service Group for Study of All-Out Warfare (UK)
JPS Joint Planning Staff
JSM Joint Staff Mission, Washington, DC
LC Library of Congress, Washington, DC
LSE London School of Economics
MAAF Mediterranean Allied Air Forces
MAP Ministry of Aircraft Production
MD Milch Documents
MdAe Ministero dell’Aeronautica
MEW Ministry of Economic Warfare
MoI Ministry of Information (UK)
NAAF North African Air Forces
NARA National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD
NC Nuffield College, Oxford
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NID Naval Intelligence Division (UK)
NSV Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt (National Socialist People’s Welfare)
OEMU Oxford Extra-Mural Unit
OKH Oberkommando des Heeres
OKW Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (high command of the German armed forces)
ORS Operational Research Section
OSS Office of Strategic Services (U.S.)
OT Organisation Todt
OTU Operational Training Unit
PArch Parliamentary Archives, Westminster, London
PWB Psychological Warfare Branch
PWE Political Warfare Executive
RAFM RAF Museum, Hendon, London
RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force
REDept Research & Experiments Department, Ministry of Home Security
RG Record Group
RLB Reichsluftschutzbund (Reich Air Defense League)
RLM Reich Air Ministry
RVK Reichsverteidigungskommissar (Reich defense commissar)
SAP Securité Aérienne Publique
SGDA Secrétariat Général à la Défense Aérienne
SHAA Service Historique de l’Armée de l’Air, Vincennes, Paris
SHAEF Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
TNA The National Archives, Kew, London
TsAMO Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Podolsk
UEA University of East Anglia
USAAF United States Army Air Forces
USAFA United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs
USMA United States Military Academy, West Point, NY
USSBS United States Strategic Bombing Survey
USSTAF United States strategic and tactical air forces
VCAS vice chief of the air staff (UK)
Prologue. Bombing Bulgaria
1 AFHRA, 519.12535, Fifteenth Air Force Operations (Bulgaria), November 1943–July 1944; Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), 584; Marshall L. Miller, Bulgaria During the Second World War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1975), 166; Rumen Rumenin, Letyashti Kreposti Nad Bulgariya (Kyustendil: Ivan Sapunjiev, 2009), 94–95, 204.
2 BA-MA, RL 2/8, German Air Ministry, aircraft deliveries to neutrals and allies, May 1943–February 1944.
3 See Martin van Creveld, Hitler’s Strategy, 1940–1941: The Balkan Clue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 109–13, for a full account of the negotiations.
4 Miller, Bulgaria, 48–55, 62–68.
5 Richard J. Crampton, Bulgaria (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 272, 275–76.
6 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, minutes of CoS meeting, October 19, 1943.
7 From a leaflet reproduced in Rumenin, Letyashti Kreposti, 335.
8 NARA, RG 165, Box 11, Report by the JCS, “The Bombing of Sofia,” enclosure B.
9 Ibid., Ambassador Kelley, Ankara, to State Dept., October 18, 1943.
10 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, CCS to Eisenhower, October 24, 1943.
11 Ibid., telegram Eden to Churchill, October 23, 1943; Eden to Churchill, October 29, 1943.
12 Frederick B. Chary, The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 1940–1944 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), 129–32; Miller, Bulgaria, 102–6.
13 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Churchill to Eden and Deputy Prime Minister Attlee, December 25, 1943.
14 Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, Ser. E, Band 7 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), Ambassador Beckerle to von Ribbentrop, January 23, 1944.
15 TNA, PREM 3/66/10, War Cabinet JIC Report, “Effects of Allied Bombing of Balkans and Balkan Situation,” January 29, 1944, 1–2; FDRL, Roosevelt papers, Map Room Files, Box 136, HQ MAAF to War Department, January 10, 1944; Rumenin, Letyashti Kreposti, 107–9.
16 Miller, Bulgaira, 167–68; Walter Warlimont, Inside Hitler’s Headquarters, 1939–1945 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), 399. Warlimont was in Bulgaria to discuss Operation Gertrude, a contingency plan for the capture of European Turkey if the Turks joined the Allies.
17 Crampton, Bulgaria, 273–74.
18 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Roosevelt to Churchill, February 9, 1944.
19 FDRL, Map Room Files, CoS to Eisenhower’s HQ, March 9, 1944; TNA, PREM 3/79/1, CoS, “Air Operations Against Bulgaria,” January 27, 1944; Churchill to General Wilson, January 27, 1944.
20 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/29, note by the air staff for War Cabinet Inter-Service Committee on Chemical Warfare, January 23, 1944, Annex 1.
21 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Churchill to Roosevelt, February 11, 1944, and February 12, 1944.
22 Ibid., Roosevelt to Churchill, February 12, 1944.
23 Ibid., Lord Killearn (Cairo) to the Foreign Office, February 24, 1944; Lord Killearn to the Foreign Office, February 24, 1944, encl. report from Mr. Howard, 1–3; Crampton, Bulgaria, 275–76.
24 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Eden to Churchill, March 3, 1944, 1–3, 8.
25 Ibid., Portal to Churchill, March 10, 1944.
26 Rumenin, Letyashti Kreposti, 125; AFHRA, 519.12535, Fifteenth Air Force Operations (Bulgaria), November 1943–July 1944.
27 Miller, Bulgaria, 168–80.
28 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 136, CoS to Wilson and General Carl Spaatz, March 25, 1944; TNA, PREM 3/66/10, Portal to Wilson and Spaatz, March 28, 1944; Portal to Wilson and Spaatz, April 11, 1944.
29 TNA, PREM 3/66/10, JSM Report, Washington, DC, July 21, 1944, 1–2; CoS memorandum, July 25, 1944.
30 TNA, PREM 3/79/5, War Cabinet minute by Anthony Eden, “Bulgaria,” March 17, 1945.
31 Percy Schramm, ed., Kriegstagebuch des OKW: Eine Dokumentation. 1943, Band 3, Teilband 2 (Augsburg: Weltbild, 2007), 1089.
32 Michael M. Boll, ed., The American Military Mission in the Allied Control Commission for Bulgaria, 1944–1947: History and Transcripts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 38–42.
33 Peter Donnelly, ed., Mrs. Milburn’s Diaries: An Englishwoman’s Day-to-Day Reflections, 1939–1945 (London: Harrap, 1979), 100, entry for June 14, 1941.
34 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, note by Churchill on telegram Tedder (MAAF) to Churchill, December 29, 1943; note by Churchill on letter from Lord Killearn to the Foreign Office, March 9, 1944.
35 TNA, PREM 3/66/10, JSM Report, Washington, DC, July 21, 1944, 1.
36 Robert F. Futrell, Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1971), 28.
37 NARA, RG 165/888, Maj. Gen. Hugh Drum, “Information on Aviation and Department of National Defense,” May 1, 1934, 3.
38 M. Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939 (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1987), 325–29; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 40–41.
39 NARA, RG 18/223, Box 4, memorandum for the CoS, April 4, 1932, 9.
40 NARA, RG 18/229, Patrick papers, Fort Leavenworth lecture, March 27, 1924, 1–2, 7–8.
41 Ibid., lecture to the Air War College, “Air Tactics,” November 1923, 1, 14–15; LC, Mitchell papers, Box 27, “Aviation in the Next War” and “Give America Airplanes”; William Mitchell, Winged Defense (New York: G. P. Putnam & Sons, 1925), 4–6, 214–16.
42 USAFA, Hansell papers, Ser. III, Box 1, Folder 1, “Fairchild lecture,” December 1, 1964, 8; USAFA, McDonald papers, Ser. V, Box 8, Folder 8, “Development of the U.S. Air Forces’ Philosophy of Air Warfare Prior to Our Entry into World War II,” [n.d.], 15–16.
43 LC, Andrews papers, Box 11, Maj. Harold George, “An Inquiry into the Subject War,” 17.
44 Josef Konvitz, “Représentations urbaines et bombardements stratégiques, 1914–1945,” Annales (1989): 834–35. Gian Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing? Lessons Learned from World War II to Kosovo (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 16–18; Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas About Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 161–64.
45 LC, Andrews papers, Box 11, Carl Spaatz, “Comments on Doctrine of the Army Air Corps,” January 5, 1935; R. W. Krauskopf, “The Army and the Strategic Bomber, 1930–1939: Part I,” Military Affairs 22 (1958–59): 94.
46 NARA, RG 94/452.1, General Oscar Westover to General Marlin Craig, December 4, 1936; Henry Arnold to adjutant-general, September 11, 1936; Air Corps Division to the chief of the Air Corps, April 14, 1937; General Embick for CoS, “Changes in Fiscal Year 1938 Airplane Program,” May 16, 1938.
47 Ibid., memorandum for CoS (Gen. George Marshall), September 21, 1939; RG 94/580, Gen. George Strong to CoS, May 10, 1940; memorandum, “Army’s Second Aviation Objective,” February 28, 1941; R. W. Krauskopf, “The Army and the Strategic Bomber, 1930–1939: Part II,” Military Affairs 22 (1958–59): 211–14. On Roosevelt see Jeffery Underwood, The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1991), 135–37.
48 TNA, AIR 9/8, notes on a possible “Locarno War,” May 2, 1929.
49 Ibid., CoS paper 156, “Note by the First Sea Lord,” May 21, 1928; CAS, “Note upon the memorandum of the Chief of the Naval Staff” [n.d. but May 1928]; “Notes for Address by CAS to the Imperial Defence College on the War Aim of an Air Force,” October 9, 1928, 1.
50 RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 3, lecture, “The Use of Air Power in 1939/45” [n.d.], 2–3; TNA, AIR 9/39, lecture by Air Vice Marshal A. S. Barratt, “Air Policy and Strategy,” March 23, 1936.
51 TNA, AIR 9/8, Address by the CAS, October 9, 1928, 5.
52 Richard Overy, “Allied Bombing and the Destruction of German Cities,” in Roger Chickering, Stig Förster, and Bernd Greiner, eds., A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 278–84.
53 NARA, RG 18/223, Box 1, RAF War Manual, pt. I, May 1935, 57.
54 See, e.g., Priya Satia, “The Defense of Inhumanity: Air Control and the British Idea of Arabia,” American Historical Review 111 (2006): 25–38. A more favorable interpretation is in Sebastian Ritchie, The RAF, Small Wars and Insurgencies in the Middle East, 1919–1939 (Northolt: Air Historical Branch, 2011), esp. 78–83.
55 John Slessor, The Central Blue: Recollections and Reflections (London: Cassell, 1956), 65–66.
56 H. G. Wilmott, “Air Control in Ovamboland,” Journal of the Royal United Services Institution 83 (1938): 823–29.
57 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 2, Portal to Churchill, September 25, 1941, encl. “The Moral Effect of Bombing,” 1; see too Charles Portal, “Air Force Co-operation in Policing the Empire,” Journal of the Royal United Services Institution 82 (1937): 343–57.
58 Neville Jones, The Beginnings of Strategic Air Power: A History of the British Bomber Force, 1923–1929 (London: Frank Cass, 1987), 107–8.
59 Ibid., 123.
60 Ibid., 118–21.
61 TNA, AIR 9/92, First Meeting of the Bombing Policy Sub-Committee, March 22, 1938, 1–2, 6–9.
62 Ibid., note on A.T.S. bombing trial results [n.d.].
63 Ibid., minutes of meeting, deputy director of plans, March 23, 1939.
64 TNA, AIR 14/225, Ludlow-Hewitt to undersecretary of state, Air Ministry, August 30, 1938. See too Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany (London: HMSO, 1961), 1:100.
65 TNA, PREM 3/79/1, telegram from British CoS to JSM, Washington, DC, October 20, 1943.
66 CamUL, Baldwin papers, vol. 1, Londonderry to Baldwin, July 17, 1934.
67 TNA, AIR 40/288, AI (Liaison), “The Blitz,” August 14, 1941, App. A, “Morale,” 1.
68 TNA, AIR 9/8, air staff memorandum, January 15, 1936, 2–3, 5; AIR 9/77, Operational Requirements Committee, minutes of meeting, August 11, 1938, 4.
69 TNA, AIR 9/8, note from Harris to deputy chief of the air staff, September 24, 1936.
70 USAFA, McDonald papers, Ser. V, Box 8, Folder 8, “Development of the U.S. Air Forces’ Philosophy of Air Warfare,” 3, 15. Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 53–56.
71 NARA, RG 18/223, Box 4, memorandum for CoS, April 4, 1932; Arnold to the chief of the Air Corps, “Cumulative Production of Airplanes of Mobilization Planning,” March 24, 1931. On Britain see Sebastian Ritchie, Industry and Air Power: The Expansion of British Aircraft Production, 1935–1941 (London: Frank Cass, 1997); George Peden, Arms, Economics and British Strategy: From Dreadnoughts to Hydrogen Bombs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 137–40, 158–61. This is the thrust of David Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2011), esp. chap. 1.
72 Oliver Stewart, “The Doctrine of Strategical Bombing,” Journal of the Royal United Services Institution 81 (1936): 97–98.
73 TNA, AIR 9/39, “Air Policy and Strategy,” March 23, 1936, 5–6.
74 USAFA, McDonald papers, Ser. V, Box 8, Folder 8, “Development of the U.S. Air Forces Philosophy,” 13–15.
75 On this see Peter Gray, “The Gloves Will Have to Come Off: A Reappraisal of the Legitimacy of the RAF Bomber Offensive Against Germany,” Air Power Review 13 (2010): 9–40.
76 There is now a very large literature on these issues. See, e.g., Anthony Grayling, Among the Dead Cities: Was the Allied Bombing of Civilians in World War II a Necessity or a Crime? (London: Bloomsbury, 2005); Jörg Friedrich, Der Brand: Deutschland im Bombenkrieg, 1940–1945 (Munich: Propyläen Verlag, 2002); Nicholson Baker, Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II and the End of Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008); Stephen A. Garrett, Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993); Beau Grosscup, Strategic Terror: The Politics and Ethics of Aerial Bombardment (London: Zed Books, 2006); Igor Primoratz, ed., Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II (Oxford: Berghahn, 2010).
77 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.30, Intelligence section, MAAF, “What Is Germany Saying?” [n.d. but early 1945].
78 See the excellent essays in Yuki Tanaka and Marilyn Young, eds., Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History (New York: New Press, 2009).
Chapter 1. The Sorcerer’s Apprentice: Bomber Command, 1939–42
1 Heinz M. Hanke, Luftkrieg und Zivilbevölkerung (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1991), 187–90. Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany (London: HMSO, 1961), 1:134–35, give the wrong dates for the German pledge and the Anglo-French declaration.
2 FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 47, Ambassador Potocki to Cordell Hull, September 1, 1939.
3 TNA, AIR 9/202, first meeting, Sub-Committee on the Humanisation of Aerial Warfare, July 8, 1938; air staff memorandum, “The Restriction of Air Warfare,” February 25, 1938; Uri Bialer, “Humanization of Air Warfare in British Foreign Policy on the Eve of the Second World War,” Journal of Contemporary History 13 (1978): 79–96.
4 TNA, AIR 14/249, “Air Ministry Instructions and Notes on the Rules to Be Observed by the Royal Air Force in War,” August 17, 1939, 5–7; AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air 1939–1945,” supplement to “Air Power and War Rights” by the former Air Ministry legal adviser, J. M. Spaight, 7; Joel Hayward, “Air Power, Ethics, and Civilian Immunity during the First World War and Its Aftermath,” Global War Studies 7 (2010): 127–29; Peter Gray, “The Gloves Will Have to Come Off: A Reappraisal of the Legitimacy of the RAF Bomber Offensive against Germany,” Air Power Review 13 (2010): 15–16.
5 TNA, AIR 9/105, Anglo-French staff conversations, “Preparation of Joint Plan,” April 19, 1939; “The Employment of British Bombers in the Event of German Invasion of the Low Countries,” April 21, 1939.
6 TNA, AIR 14/249, Air Ministry to Bomber Command, August 22, 1939; AIR 75/8, Newall to Ludlow-Hewitt, August 23, 1939. Gray, “The Gloves Will Have to Come Off,” 22–23.
7 TNA, AIR 75/8, Newall to Gen. Gort, August 24, 1939; War Cabinet Annex, “Air Policy,” October 13, 1939; AIR 14/446, Air Ministry minute, August 30, 1939.
8 TNA, FO 371/23093, Sir Hugh Kennard (Warsaw) to Foreign Office, September 11 and September 12, 1939.
9 TNA, AIR 75/8, “Air Policy: Brief for the Secretary of State for Supreme War Council,” November 15, 1939, 5–8.
10 Martin Middlebrook and Chris Everitt, The Bomber Command War Diaries (Leicester: Midland Publishing, 2000), 42, 702–3.
11 FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 32, Chamberlain to Roosevelt, August 25, 1939; Roosevelt to Chamberlain, August 31, 1939.
12 TNA, AIR 9/131, “The Employment of the Air Striking Force on the Outbreak of War” [n.d. but August 1939], 10. W. A. Jacobs, “The British Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany in World War II,” in R. Cargill Hall, ed., Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1998), 109–10.
13 Richard Overy, “Air Power, Armies and the War in the West, 1940,” 32nd Harmon Memorial Lecture, USAFA, Colorado Springs, 1989, 8–12.
14 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:99–102, App. 6; Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas About Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 178–80.
15 TNA, AIR 9/89, Air (Targets) Intelligence: Country: Germany, January 21, 1938.
16 Owen Thetford, Aircraft of the Royal Air Force Since 1918 (London: Guild Publishing, 1988), 138–41, 273–76.
17 Ibid., 30–34, 313–16, 554–61.
18 Armaments Design Establishment, The Development of British Incendiary Bombs During the Period of the 1939–1945 World War, Ministry of Supply, December 1946; TNA, AIR 9/92, Air Ministry, “Bomb Stocks as at 26 April 1939.” On the poor quality of bombs see NC, Cherwell papers, G189, Cherwell to Ministry of Supply, January 28, 1942, memorandum, “Bomb Production”; F255, War Cabinet paper, “The Possibility of Improving Efficiency of Blast Bombs,” October 6, 1943.
19 TNA, AIR 14/88, Air Ministry to Ludlow-Hewitt, October 27, 1939; AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air,” 1.
20 TNA, AIR 75/5, Slessor to Newall, March 29, 1940; Richard Overy, Bomber Command, 1939–1945 (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 32–33.
21 TNA, AIR 9/102, Draft Plan W.A.5(d), January 13, 1940; CamUL, Templewood papers, XII, File 2, interviews with officers from Wellington and Whitley squadrons, April 29, 1940.
22 TNA, AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air,” 12–13.
23 TNA, AIR 14/194, Record of a conference with the air staff, April 28, 1940, 3.
24 Martin Gilbert, ed., The Churchill War Papers, vol. 2, Never Surrender: May 1940–December 1940 (London: Heinemann, 1994), 17–18, 24–26, 38–43, War Cabinet minutes, May 12, May 13, May 15, 1940. Randall Hansen, Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945 (New York: NAL Caliber, 2009), 20, also dates the Rotterdam attack incorrectly.
25 Christopher C. Harmon, “Are We Beasts?”: Churchill and the Moral Question of World War II “Area Bombing” (Newport, RI: Naval War College, 1991; Newport Papers, no. 1), 8–10.
26 Martin Gilbert, Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill, 1939–1941 (London: Heinemann, 1983), 329–30, 334, 342–47; Gilbert, Churchill War Papers, 2:17–18, 25, 38–41. War Cabinet minutes, May 13, 1940, War Cabinet minutes: Confidential Annex, May 13, 1940, War Cabinet minutes: Confidential Annex, May 15, 1940.
27 TNA, AIR 14/194, CAS minute, May 19, 1940; DCAS to C-in-C Bomber Command, May 30, 1940.
28 TNA, AIR 14/249, Air Ministry to all commands, June 4, 1940; AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air,” 13.
29 TNA, AIR 14/249, Bottomley (Bomber Command SASO) to all group HQ, June 14, 1940.
30 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/56, Portal to Douglas (DCAS), July 16, 1940; TNA, AIR 14/249, Bomber Command war orders, proposed amendment, July 14, 1940.
31 Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality, 188–89.
32 TNA, AIR 14/249, telegram from Air Ministry to Bomber Command HQ, September 10, 1940; AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air,” 13; Gray, “The Gloves Will Have to Come Off,” 25–26.
33 Richard Overy, “Allied Bombing and the Destruction of German Cities,” in Roger Chickering, Stig Förster, and Bernd Greiner, eds., A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 280–84; Hayward, “Air Power, Ethics,” 124–25.
34 TNA, AIR 75/8, War Cabinet Annex, “Air Policy,” October 14, 1939.
35 TNA, AIR 9/79, Air Ministry (Plans), “Note on the Relative Merit of Oil and Power as Objectives for Air Attack,” October 16, 1939; AIR 75/8, “Draft Bombing Plans,” November 14, 1939.
36 RAFM, Douglas papers, MFC 78/23/2, Trenchard to Portal, May 2, 1940; TNA, AIR 75/8, Portal to Newall, May 8, 1940.
37 TNA, AIR 75/8, “Draft Bombing Plans,” November 14, 1939, 3.
38 TNA, AIR 14/194, Slessor (director of plans) to Air Marshal D. Evill, October 22, 1939; “Note on the Question of Relaxing Bombardment Instructions,” September 7, 1939.
39 TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, Foreign Office report, May 30, 1940; Halifax to Churchill, June 2, 1940, encl. report, “Morale in Germany.”
40 TNA, AIR 75/8, Air Ministry (Plans), “Plans for Attack of Italian War Industry,” June 2, 1940; AIR 20/283, Air Ministry (Bomber Operations), “Notes on Bomb Attacks,” August 20, 1940.
41 Martin Hugh-Jones, “Wickham Steed and German Biological Warfare Research,” Intelligence and National Security 7 (1992): 387–90, 393–97; Ulf Schmidt, “Justifying Chemical Warfare: The Origins and Ethics of Britain’s Chemical Warfare Programme, 1915–1939,” in Jo Fox and David Welch, eds., Justifying War: Propaganda, Politics and the Modern Age (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012), 148–50.
42 TNA, AIR 14/206, TC 2, “Notes on German Air Operations in Poland,” October 19, 1939.
43 TNA, AIR 41/5, “International Law of the Air,” 9–10.
44 TNA, AIR 14/194, Bomber Command, “Note on the Question of Relaxing the Bombardment Instructions,” September 7, 1939; AIR 14/381, Plan W.1, memorandum for C-in-C, Bomber Command, April 1938, 1.
45 Harold Balfour, Wings over Westminster (London: Hutchinson, 1973), 120.
46 TNA, FO 898/311, MEW memorandum, “Bombing of Open Towns,” April 19, 1940.
47 CCO, Richards archive, File IV/Folder A, Salmond to Trenchard, May 11, 1940.
48 Gilbert, Churchill War Papers, 2:41, War Cabinet minutes: Confidential Annex, May 15, 1940.
49 Gilbert, Finest Hour, 81.
50 Robinson Library, University of Newcastle, Trevelyan papers, draft article, “Nazism and Civilisation,” March 1943.
51 National Library of Wales, Jevons papers, I IV/85, Noel-Baker to H. Stanley Jevons, November 6, 1940; Noel-Baker, “Reprisals? No,” Daily Herald, October 2, 1940; Brett Holman, “‘Bomb Back, and Bomb Hard’: Debating Reprisals during the Blitz,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 58 (2012): 395–99.
52 LSE, Women’s International League of Peace and Freedom papers, 1/16, Executive minutes, July 3, 1940; WILPF 2009/05/04, “Report of Deputation of Pacifist Clergy to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, 11 June 1940,” 2.
53 CamUL, Templewood papers, XII, File 2, transcript of broadcast talk, April 27, 1940.
54 Gilbert, Churchill War Papers, 2:42–43, War Cabinet minutes: Confidential Annex, May 15, 1940.
55 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 1, Portal to Churchill, October 27, 1940.
56 TNA, AIR 9/424, Slessor (DCAS) to director of plans, August 17 and August 24, 1942. The final directive (Joint Planning Staff: Anglo-U.S. Bombing Policy) was produced on August 31 naming “industrial centres” rather than industrial populations.
57 RAFM, Harris papers, H47, Harris to the undersecretary of state, Air Ministry, October 25, 1943; A. W. Street (Air Ministry) to Harris, December 15, 1943. There is an extended discussion of this correspondence in Hansen, Fire and Fury, 159–66.
58 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:111–24. On forests and game see TNA, AIR 40/1814, MEW note, “German Forests,” August 7, 1940.
59 TNA, AIR 20/283, Air Ministry War Room, “Tonnage of Bombs Dropped 24 June to 27 Aug 1940.” The objectives were oil and fuel, electric power, chemicals and explosives, aircraft industry, enemy aerodromes, aluminum, shipbuilding and docks, and communications.
60 TNA, AIR 9/150, Bomber Command war room, details of raids and tonnages on German port targets to May 1941.
61 Ibid., “Effort Expended by Bomber Command, May to October 1940”; war room to Air Ministry (Plans), details of all sorties, October 11, 1940. The 1944 figures are in Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:445–46.
62 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/56, Douglas to Newall, July 9, 1940; Portal to Douglas, July 16, 1940.
63 CCO, Portal papers, Walter Monkton (MoI) to Portal, November 8, 1940.
64 Edward Westermann, Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 90.
65 TNA, PREM 3/11/1, Churchill note for Newall, July 28, 1940; Newall to Churchill, July 19, 1940, “Note on Attack of German Forests”; AIR 20/5813, “Forestry Report on Incendiary Tests with Different Types of Bombs,” July 10, 1941; “Report on a Trial of ‘Razzle’ in Standing Crops,” August 16, 1940.
66 Westermann, Flak, 97, 102–3.
67 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/2, précis of a lecture by Wing Commander G. Carey Foster.
68 CCO, Richards archive, File VIII, Folder A, interview transcripts with Sir Ian Jacob and Sir Robert Cochrane.
69 Harmon, “Are We Beasts?,” 10–14.
70 Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War (London: Cassell, 1957), 2:567; Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality, 186–87, for Churchill’s views on bombing as a “way of winning the war.”
71 For instance, Jörg Friedrich, The Fire: The Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945, trans. Allison Brown (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 62; Douglas Lackey, “Four Types of Mass Murderer: Stalin, Hitler, Churchill, Truman,” in Igor Primoratz, ed., Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II (Oxford: Berghahn, 2010), 134–35, 144–54; Eric Markusen and David Kopf, “Was It Genocidal?,” in ibid., 160–71.
72 David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), 320–22.
73 CamUL, Boyle papers, Add 9429/2c, conversation with Harris, July 18, 1979. Harris also showed the letter to Churchill’s biographer, Martin Gilbert. See Gilbert, Churchill War Papers, 2:492–93.
74 TNA, AIR 2/7211, “Note on the Lessons to Be Learned from German Mistakes,” September 19, 1940, 3.
75 CCAC, Bufton papers, DBOps, “Review of the Present Strategical Air Offensive,” April 5, 1941, 5, and App. C, “The Blitz Attack by Night.”
76 TNA, AIR 9/132, RE8 report, “Consideration of the Types of Bombs for Specific Objectives Based on Experience of German Bombing in this Country,” September 26, 1940, 2–3.
77 UEA, Zuckerman archive, OEMU/50/7, “Notes on the Work of R.E.8,” November 18, 1942; TNA, HO 191/203, A. R. Astbury, “History of the Research and Experiments Department, Ministry of Home Security, 1939–1945,” 21–23.
78 TNA, DSIR 4/366, Building Research Laboratory, List of Enquiries Aug. 1940–Nov. 1941.
79 For an excellent account see Randall Wakelam, The Science of Bombing: Operational Research in RAF Bomber Command (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2009), 24–33.
80 Hugh Berrington, “When Does Personality Make a Difference? Lord Cherwell and the Area Bombing of Germany,” International Political Science Review 10 (1989): 18–21.
81 NC, Cherwell papers, F398, Statistical Section, Harrod papers, “Bombs and Deaths,” September 30, 1940; G181, “Air Raid Casualties” [n.d. but September 1940]; “House Damage in Air Raids,” September 27, 1940; “Bombing of London in September, October and November 1940”; G183, “Notes of a Conversation with Professor Zuckerman,” March 26, 1941 (attached two charts of Hannover and Frankfurt with zones of population density).
82 TNA, AIR 9/132, minute by Plans Dept., Air Ministry, January 6, 1941; AIR 20/2264, AWAS Report, “The Bomb Censuses of Liverpool, Birmingham and London,” October 29, 1940; AWAS Report, “Bomb Census of Liverpool, Birmingham, London, Coventry, Manchester, Leeds and Special Attacks,” April 1941.
83 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, draft directive [n.d. but June 1941].
84 TNA, AIR 40/1814, memorandum by O. Lawrence (MEW), May 9, 1941.
85 See Richard Overy, “The ‘Weak Link’?: The Perception of the German Working Class by RAF Bomber Command, 1940–1945,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 22–25.
86 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/48, “The Role of the Long-Range Bomber Force”; “Review of the Present Strategical Air Offensive,” April 5, 1940, App. C, 2.
87 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/13, notes on Plan ZZ, November 19, 1941, App. VI, “Attack on an Area of 150 Square Miles.”
88 TNA, AIR 2/7211, bombing policy memorandum, November 19, 1940; AIR 20/25, AI to Baker, May 23, 1941.
89 TNA, AIR 20/25, memorandum on bombing policy by Baker, May 7, 1941.
90 RAFM, Peirse papers, AC 71/13/61-2, notes of a speech by Richard Peirse to the Thirty Club in London, November 25, 1941, 3.
91 TNA, AIR 20/4768, memorandum, September 23, 1941, “The Value of Incendiary Weapons in Attacks on Area Targets,” 2.
92 CCAC, Bufton papers, DBOps to the director, June 6, 1941.
93 TNA, AIR 40/1351, AI 3c (Air Liaison), “Air Attack by Fire,” October 17, 1941.
94 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, report from BOPs 1 (Sq. Leader Morley), October 18, 1941.
95 Hugh Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders: The Career of Air Vice-Marshal Sydney Bufton (Stroud: The History Press, 2010), 59.
96 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 1:157–64.
97 TNA, AIR 9/150, Air Ministry War Room, Bomber Command sorties May–October 1940, November 1940–April 1941; DBOps to DCAS, September 11, 1941.
98 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9, Peirse to Balfour, November 27, 1940; Portal to Peirse, November 30, 1940.
99 TNA, AIR 14/291, meeting at Air Ministry, December 10, 1940; HQ no. 7 Group to C-in-C, Bomber Command, January 4, 1941.
100 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 1/File 1, Churchill to Portal, November 1, 1940; Churchill to Portal, December 30, 1940.
101 Ibid., Folder 9/File 1940, Peirse to Churchill, December 24, 1940; Peirse to Portal [n.d. but December 1940]; File 1941, Peirse to Churchill, January 1, 1941.
102 John Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries, 1939–1945 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), 241, diary entry for November 2, 1940.
103 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 1/File 1, Portal to Churchill, December 7, 1940; Folder 9/File 1940, Portal to Peirse, December 5, 1940; Peirse to Churchill, December 24, 1940. Details of raid in Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 111, and TNA, AIR 14/2670, night bomb raid sheets, December 1940, “Results of Night Operations, 16/17 December 1940.”
104 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 1:159–60.
105 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 2, Peirse to Portal, February 28, 1941.
106 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/56, “Bombing Policy.”
107 Ibid., draft directive, July 9, 1941; Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:135–37.
108 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 1940, Peirse to Portal [n.d.].
109 RAFM, Peirse papers, AC 71/13/60, speech to the Thirty Club, November 25, 1941, 11.
110 TNA, AIR 40/288, AI (Liaison), “The Blitz,” August 14, 1941, Table 1, “Effects of Blitz.”
111 TNA, AIR 41/41, RAF Narrative, “The RAF in the Bombing Offensive Against Germany: Vol. 3,” 87.
112 TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, minister of information to Churchill, January 1, 1941, “Conditions in Germany, December 1940,” 2.
113 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/11, “Report on the Interrogation of American Legation and Consular Officials in Lisbon, 24–31 July 1941,” 4.
114 TNA, AIR 20/4768, air staff memorandum, September 23, 1941.
115 Foreign Office Historical Branch, “Churchill and Stalin: Documents Collated for the Anglo-Russian Seminar, 8 March 2002,” doc. 9, broadcast by Mr. Churchill, June 22, 1941, 1, 3.
116 Ibid., doc. 11, telegram from Churchill to Stalin, July 7, 1941.
117 Bradley Smith, Sharing Secrets with Stalin: How the Allies Traded Intelligence, 1941–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 11.
118 Colville, Fringes of Power, 363, entry for July 21, 1941.
119 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/29, Peck to Bottomley, April 6, 1944, encl. “Address to Thirty Club, 8 Mar 1944,” 1–2.
120 Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 166–67.
121 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/28, Luftflotte 3, Gefechtskalender, “Durchführung und Erfolge Juli 1941.”
122 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 1, Churchill to Portal, July 7, 1941. On the German response see Percy Schramm, ed., Kriegstagebuch des OKW: Eine Dokumentation. 1940–1941, Band 1, Teilband 2 (Augsburg: Weltbild, 2007), 417–20.
123 TNA, PREM 3/13/2, Churchill to Lindemann, July 7, 1941; Churchill to Sinclair and Portal, July 12, 1941.
124 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/115, “Operational Photography in Bomber Command Sept 1939–April 1945,” June 1945, 14–29. Robert S. Ehlers Jr., Targeting the Third Reich: Air Intelligence and the Allied Bombing Campaigns (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 96–97.
125 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 2, Portal to Cherwell, July 29, 1941; Cherwell to Portal, July 30, 1941.
126 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:205, “Report by Mr. Butt to Bomber Command on His Examination of Night Photographs, 18 August 1941”; Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 43–44.
127 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 1, Churchill to Portal, September 15, 1941.
128 Ibid., Cherwell to Churchill, September 3, 1941; Portal to Churchill, “Notes on Lord Cherwell’s Paper,” September 11, 1941.
129 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/115, “Operational Photography,” 26.
130 Interview with Robert Kee in Overy, Bomber Command, 75.
131 TNA, AIR 41/41, RAF Narrative, vol. 3, 42; Wakelam, Science of Bombing, 42–46.
132 Overy, Bomber Command, 74, interview with Wilkie Wanless; TNA, AIR 9/150, Peirse to Balfour, September 7, 1941; AIR 20/1979, Bomber Command, aircraft strengths and casualties. Between September 1939 and February 1941, 93,341 nonoperational sorties were flown by day, only 3,157 by night.
133 TNA, AIR 9/150, BOps to DBOps, November 27, 1941; AIR 20/283, Baker (DBOps) to Portal, July 28, 1941.
134 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:455; TNA, AIR 9/150, DBOps to DCAS, September 11, 1941.
135 Thetford, Aircraft of the Royal Air Force, 317–22, 488–91; Brereton Greenhous, Stephen Harris, William Johnston, and William Rawling, The Crucible of War, 1939–1945: The Official History of the Royal Canadian Air Force, vol. 3 (Toronto: Toronto University Press/Department of National Defence, 1994), 604–6.
136 Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 605.
137 Sebastian Cox, ed., The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945: The Official Report of the British Bombing Survey Unit (London: Frank Cass, 1998), 37.
138 PArch, Beaverbrook papers, BBK/D/329, Air Ministry to MAP, May 4, 1941. On bombs see John A. MacBean and Arthur S. Hogben, Bombs Gone: The Development and Use of British Air-Dropped Weapons from 1912 to the Present Day (Wellingborough: Patrick Stephens, 1990), 66–68; Roy Irons, The Relentless Offensive: War and Bomber Command, 1939–1945 (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2009), 190–91, 205–6.
139 TNA, AIR 20/5813, minute, VCS, November 3, 1941; “4lb Incendiary Bomb,” BOps 2b, January 2, 1942.
140 NC, Cherwell papers, F222, minute for Churchill from Cherwell, May 1941; G182, H. W. Robinson to Cherwell, October 27, 1941; Chart, “Bombs Dropped on Germany July–Dec 1941”; G189, Cherwell to Ministry of Supply, January 28, 1942; PArch, Beaverbrook papers, BBK/D/330, Air Marshal Courtney to Beaverbrook, May 27, 1941. Details on bombs from Irons, Relentless Offensive, 203–5.
141 Cox, Strategic Air War, 36.
142 PArch, Balfour papers, BAL/3, “Dunkirk Days–Battle of Britain” (Balfour was undersecretary of state at the Air Ministry). See CamUL, Boyle papers, Add 9429/2C, Boyle to Harris, July 22, 1979, where Beaverbrook was still remembered as “one of the instinctive opponents of bombing Germany.”
143 PArch, Beaverbrook papers, BBK/D/329, Portal to Moore-Brabazon, May 10, 1941, 3.
144 Gavin Bailey, “Aircraft for Survival: Anglo-American Aircraft Supply Diplomacy, 1938–1942” (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Dundee, 2010), 183–91.
145 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 199, handwritten notes, Placentia Bay meeting, August 11, 1941.
146 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:4–6; Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 56–57, 59; Alfred Price, Instruments of Darkness: The History of Electronic Warfare, 1939–1945 (London: Greenhill, 2005), 97–99.
147 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/101, Vorstudien zur Luftkriegsgeschichte, Heft 8: Reichsluftverteidigung: Teil B, Flakabwehr [n.d., 1944], 12–13, 15.
148 RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12 Box 7, “War in the Ether: Europe, 1939–1945,” Signals Branch, HQ Bomber Command, October 1945, 6.
149 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/101, “Flakabwehr,” 15–17.
150 Werner Held and Holger Nauroth, Die deutsche Nachtjagd (Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, 1992), 115–17.
151 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/101, “Flakabwehr,” 18–19, 23; Bill Gunston, Night Fighters: A Development and Combat History (Patrick Stephens, 1976), 86–89; Price, Instruments of Darkness, 55–59.
152 Westermann, Flak, 123–24.
153 TNA, AIR 20/283, minute by DBOps (Baker), November 10, 1941.
154 Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 66–67; Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 210.
155 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 2, Churchill to Portal, September 27, 1941; Portal to Churchill, September 25, 1941, enclosing “Development and Employment of the Heavy Bomber Force,” September 22, 1941.
156 Ibid., Portal to Churchill, October 2, 1941; Churchill to Portal, October 7, 1941.
157 TNA, AIR 41/41, RAF Narrative, vol. 3, 111; Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 217–18; Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 559–60.
158 Mark Connelly, Reaching for the Stars: A New History of Bomber Command in World War II (London: I. B. Tauris, 2001), 60–62; Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 1:254–56; Anthony Furse, Wilfrid Freeman: The Genius Behind Allied Survival and Air Supremacy, 1939 to 1945 (Staplehurst, Kent: Spellmount, 2000), 199–200.
159 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, “Report of a Visit to Groups and Stations by Wing-Commander Morley, 10 Dec 1941.”
160 Royal Society, Blackett papers, PB/4/4, “Note on the Use of the Bomber Force,” 3.
161 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 1:328–29.
162 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, minute for DBOps from Bufton, February 27, 1942.
163 PArch, Beaverbrook papers, BBK/D/330, telegram from Harris to Portal and Sinclair, September 18, 1941; RAFM, Harris papers, Harris to Freeman, September 15, 1941, 5.
164 RAFM, Harris papers, Harris to Freeman, September 15, 1941, 2–3.
165 PArch, Beaverbrook papers, BBK/D/330, telegram from Harris to Portal, December 8, 1941.
166 Henry Probert, Bomber Harris: His Life and Times (London: Greenhill, 2006), 122–23.
167 Warren Kimball, ed., Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, vol. 1, Alliance Emerging (London: Collins, 1984), 296, memorandum, Churchill to Roosevelt, pt. 1, “The Atlantic Front.”
168 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 199, Proceedings of the American-British Joint Chiefs of Staff Conferences, December 24, 1941, 2.
169 Ibid., Annex 1, American-British Strategy, 2, 5.
170 Kimball, Churchill-Roosevelt Correspondence, 1:314–23, Churchill to Roosevelt, January 7(?), 1942.
171 USAFA, Colorado Springs (USAFA), Hansell papers, Ser. 3, Box 1, Folder 2, “Can We Be Bombed?” [n.d. but late 1939], 22–23.
172 NARA, RG 94.580, memorandum from CAS, May 10, 1940; LC, Andrews papers, Box 11, memorandum for the Executive by Carl Spaatz, January 5, 1935, “Comments on Doctrines of the Army Air Corps,” 1.
173 Haywood Hansell, The Air Plan That Defeated Hitler (Atlanta: Higgins McArthur, 1972), 53–63, 92–93.
174 Douglas Lackey, “The Bombing Campaign of the USAAF,” in Primoratz, Terror from the Sky, 41–45; Ronald Schaffer, “American Military Ethics in World War II: The Bombing of German Civilians,” Journal of American History 67 (1980): 320–22; Conrad Crane, “Evolution of U.S. Strategic Bombing of Urban Areas,” Historian 50 (1987): 16–17, 21–24.
175 On Roosevelt see Jeffery Underwood, The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1991), chaps. 7–8.
176 TNA, FO 371/23093, Dept. of State communiqué from Ambassador Anthony Biddle, September 13, 1939; FDRL, president’s personal files, 554, Biddle to Roosevelt, November 10, 1939.
177 Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 97–98.
178 NARA, Lovett papers, RG 107, Box 138, memorandum for Lovett, “Blackout Alarms,” December 24, 1941; Lovett to Donald Douglas (president, Douglas Aircraft Company), January 27, 1942; Office of Civilian Defense to all regional directors, December 22, 1941.
179 Ibid., Engineer Board, U.S. Army, “Traffic Control During Blackouts,” October 5, 1942; Joseph McNarney (deputy army CoS) to vice chief of naval operations, June 5, 1942.
180 Ibid., Box 139, Federal Works Agency, “Air Raid Protection Code for Federal Buildings,” August 1942, 13–20, 21–25.
181 Ibid., Civilian Front, vol. 11, May 15, 1943, 7; HQ Army Service Forces, Periodic Report to Lovett, 2.
182 Ibid., James Landis, “We’re Not Safe from Air Raids,” Civilian Front, May 15, 1943.
183 James Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here”: General Ira Eaker and the Command of the Air (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1986), 128–34, 149. Eighth Air Force activation in Maxwell AFB, Eighth Air Force, 520.056, Statistical Summary 8th Air Force Operations, 1.
184 TNA, AIR 14/792, Eaker to Harris, July 30, 1942; Bottomley to Portal, February 8, 1942; Baker to Bottomley, February 2, 1942.
185 Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Center for Air Force History, 1993), 67–71.
186 Ibid., 48–53.
187 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 89, Harold George (Asst. CoS) to Arnold, February 25, 1942.
188 John Huston, ed., American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold’s World War II Diaries (Maxwell, AL: Air University Press, 2002), 1:282–84, 310.
189 Ibid., 1:304, entry for May 30, 1942.
190 Based on Probert, Bomber Harris, chaps. 2, 4–5.
191 “Rabbits” in CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, March 2, 1942; “weaker sisters” in RAFM, Harris papers, H51, Harris to Peck (Air Ministry), May 1, 1942; “Fifth Columnists” in Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, March 5, 1942; “impertinent” in Harris papers, H9, Harris to Bottomley, January 13, 1945.
192 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3, Air Commodore Pelly to Zuckerman, January 8, 1947.
193 RAFM, Harris papers, H53, Harris to Baker (DBOps), April 11, 1942.
194 CamUL, Boyle papers, Add 9429/2C, Boyle to Harris, August 24, 1979.
195 RAFM, Harris papers, H9, Harris to Bottomley, March 29, 1945.
196 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:143–48.
197 TNA, AIR 20/4768, memorandum from BOps, February 25, 1942.
198 NC, Cherwell papers, G192, note for Cherwell, February 23, 1942, on German towns; CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/15, memorandum from Morley (BOps 1), “The Employment of H. E. Bombs in Incendiary Attack,” November 18, 1942, 1–2.
199 NC, Cherwell papers, F254, War Cabinet, “Estimates of Bombing Effect,” April 9, 1942; F226, minute for Churchill from Cherwell, March 30, 1942; TNA, AIR 9/183, comments on Cherwell paper, April 17, 1942.
200 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, March 5, 1942.
201 RAFM, Harris papers, H47, Harris to Bottomley, April 9, 1942.
202 Olaf Groehler, Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1990), 98.
203 BA-B, R 1501/823, directive from interior minister, May 6, 1942, 1. Details of raids are from Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 246–52, 259–61; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 50–54.
204 RAFM, Harris papers, H53, Baker to Harris, March 21, 1942; Baker to Harris, April 9, 1942; TNA, AIR 20/4768, note from Bufton for Baker, April 6, 1942; Harris to Baker, April 11, 1942.
205 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, Bufton to Harris, May 8, 1942; TNA, AIR 14/1779, chart of attacks on Essen, Duisburg, and Düsseldorf.
206 TNA, PREM 3/11/4, Cherwell to Churchill, March 30, 1942; Sinclair to Churchill, April 6, 1942; Hollis (CoS) to Churchill, April 10, 1942; AIR 9/187, Chiefs of Staff Committee minutes, April 13, 1942.
207 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:231–38, “Report by Mr. Justice Singleton, 20 May 1942”; TNA, PREM 3/11/4, Singleton to Churchill, May 20, 1942.
208 TNA, PREM 3/11/4, Cherwell to Churchill, May 28, 1942.
209 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Cherwell to Portal, February 27, 1942; Harris to Portal, March 2, 1942; Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 68–69.
210 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, “Tactical Direction of the Bomber Force,” May 16, 1942, 1.
211 Ibid., Bufton to all squadron and station commanders, March 1942; H. Graham to Morley (BOps 1), April 1, 1942.
212 Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 72–78; Furse, Wilfrid Freeman, 205–8; Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 297–98, 301.
213 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, minute by the assistant CoS (operations), August 2, 1942.
214 TNA, AIR 14/276, Portal to Harris, May 19, 1942; Harris to Coastal Command, Flying Training and Army Co-Operation, May 20, 1942; Harris to Philip de la Ferté (Coastal Command), May 23, 1942; Bomber Command Operational Order, no. 147, May 23, 1942.
215 BA-B, NS 18/1058, report, Leiter IV, Party Chancellery, May 31, 1942; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 65–66.
216 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 66–67.
217 Details from Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 274, 280–81; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 69.
218 Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 621–22.
219 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 3, Smuts to Churchill, June 30, 1942; draft telegram Churchill to Smuts, July 4, 1942, rejecting the proposal.
220 RAFM, Harris papers, H11, memorandum for the prime minister, June 17, 1942 (revised August 20); TNA, PREM 3/19, Harris to Churchill, June 17, 1942.
221 RAFM, Harris papers, H63, App. A, “Approximate Allocation of Air Resources, June 15, 1942”; TNA, PREM 3/19, Churchill minute to Harris, July 6, 1942; Air Ministry to Cabinet Office, August 12, 1942; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, August 20, 1942. Out of forty-two squadrons on establishment, Harris reckoned that six were on loan, six were reequipping or forming, four were operationally limited (Polish squadrons “almost useless”), and five others were unavailable.
222 Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 166–67.
223 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 76, Eaker to Spaatz, August 27, 1942, “Accuracy of Bombardment,” 2, 4.
224 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 12, telegram from Harriman to Roosevelt, August 14, 1942.
225 TNA, AIR 8/435, Churchill to Sinclair and Portal, August 17, 1942; Portal to Churchill, August 20, 1942; Harris to Portal, August 29, 1942.
226 TNA, PREM 3/19, Harris to Churchill, September 4, 1942; Churchill to Harris, September 13, 1942; “better than doing nothing” in CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 1, Churchill to Sinclair, March 13, 1943.
227 TNA, PREM 3/19, Amery to Churchill, September 1, 1942.
228 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, L. A. C. Cunningham to Morley (BOps 1), October 14, 1942.
229 Royal Society, Blackett papers, PB/4/4, minutes of CoS discussion, November 18, 1942.
230 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, September 24, 1942. On the arguments over the size of the Canadian component see Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 599–600.
231 TNA, AIR 14/792, Harris to Balfour, November 12, 1942; Bottomley to Harris, November 28, 1942.
232 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, Harris to Portal, October 21, 1942.
233 TNA, AIR 14/1779, Air Vice Marshal Saundby to Tizard, December 2, 1942.
234 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/15, minute for Baker from Bufton, November 2, 1942.
235 TNA, AIR 22/203, War Room Manual of Bomber Command Operations 1939–1945, chart 4, chart 9.
236 UEA, Zuckerman archive, OEMU/50/2, REDept, “The 1000-Bomber Raid on Cologne,” November 3, 1942.
237 BA-B, NS 18/1063, Partei-Kanzlei, Abt. PG, “Angaben über die Verluste durch Fliegerangriffen,” October 2, 1942; R 3102/10031, Reich Statistical Office, “Die Tätigkeit der feindlichen Luftwaffe über dem Reichsgebiet,” January 10, 1945; USSBS, “Overall Report, European War, 30 Sept 1945,” 74, 81.
238 TNA, AIR 9/424, note from Churchill for the CoS Committee, November 18, 1942.
239 Ibid., War Cabinet, JPS, “Anglo-US Bombing Policy,” August 18, 1942.
240 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 66, directive from Roosevelt to Marshall, August 24, 1942; Arnold to Harry Hopkins, September 3, 1942, encl. memorandum, “Plans for Operations Against the Enemy,” 2.
241 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 113–16.
242 TNA, AIR 40/1814, MEW to Sinclair, May 2, 1942; see too Balfour, Wings over Westminster, 103, who wrote that the division he found between service officers and civil servants in the Air Ministry resulted in “processes of administration and decision [that] were cumbersome and slow.”
243 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/12, memorandum by Wing Cdr. A. Morley, “The Tactical Direction of the Bomber Force,” May 20, 1942, 2.
244 CCAC, BUFT 3/15, memorandum for DBOps from Bufton, September 6, 1942.
Chapter 2. The Casablanca Offensive: The Allies over Germany, 1943–44
1 TNA, AIR 75/11, Slessor papers, pencil notes, “Conduct of the War in 1943.”
2 Ibid., draft by Slessor, “The Bomber Offensive from the United Kingdom: Note by the British Chiefs of Staff,” January 20, 1943; draft, “Casablanca Directive,” January 21, 1943; John Slessor, The Central Blue: Recollections and Reflections (London: Cassell, 1956), 445–46.
3 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 200, Arnold to Gen. Wedemeyer, December 30, 1942.
4 RAFM, Harris papers, H28, Arthur Sulzberger, New York Times, to Harris, September 21, 1942; Harris to Francis Drake, January 1, 1943; Robert Lovett to Harris, November 24, 1942; Harris to Lovett, December 24, 1942; H51, Richard Peck (Air Ministry) to Harris, December 22, 1942; telegram from air attaché, Washington, DC, to Air Ministry, January 11, 1943.
5 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/29, Air Commodore Pelly to Zuckerman, January 14, 1946.
6 TNA, PREM 3/14/2, cipher telegram, Churchill to the Air Ministry, August 17, 1942; Portal to Churchill, August 20, 1942; Stalin to Churchill, January 19, 1943. For Harris’s views see AIR 8/435, Portal and Sinclair to Churchill, August 18, 1942; Harris to Portal, August 29, 1942.
7 TNA, AIR 8/435, Stalin to Churchill, March 3, 1943; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 3, Churchill to Portal, September 10, 1942; Churchill to Stalin, September 11, 1942.
8 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 3, Churchill, “Note on Air Policy,” October 22, 1942; Folder 3/File 4, Churchill to Portal, October 26, 1942; Portal to Churchill, November 7, 1942; LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Spaatz to Eaker, December 9, 1942; Eaker to Spaatz, January 29, 1943.
9 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 200, Arnold to Gen. Stratemeyer, February 26, 1943.
10 Slessor, Central Blue, 438–39; TNA, AIR 75/11, draft, “Future Strategy,” September 25, 1942; draft for the CoS, “Anglo-American Bomber Offensive against Italy and Germany in 1943.”
11 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 66, Arnold to Harry Hopkins, September 3, 1942, encl. memorandum, “Plans for Operations Against the Enemy.”
12 Ibid., AWPD-42, “Requirements of Air Ascendancy,” 6–7.
13 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 165, Folder 6, JCS minutes of meetings, January 13 and January 14, 1943; LC, Arnold papers, Reel 200, JCS, minutes of meetings, January 14, 1943, 11–12.
14 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 4, Churchill to Harry Hopkins, October 14, 1942; “Note on Air Policy,” October 22, 1942; Churchill to Portal, Sinclair, and Harris, October 26, 1942.
15 TNA, PREM 3/19, Churchill to Harris, September 18, 1942; AIR 9/424, air staff minute, October 10, 1942.
16 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 4, Sinclair to Churchill, October 23, 1942; Portal to Churchill, October 28, 1942; Portal to Churchill, November 7, 1942; Tami Davis Biddle, “British and American Approaches to Strategic Bombing: Their Origins and Implementation in the World War II Bomber Offensive,” in John Gooch, ed., Airpower: Theory and Practice (London: Frank Cass, 1995), 119–20.
17 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 97, “Casablanca Notes,” January 15, 1943; John Huston, ed., American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold’s World War II Diaries (Maxwell, AL: Air University Press, 2002), 1:462; AFHRA, CD A5835, “Eighth Air Force: Growth, Development and Operations,” Air Force Plans, exhibit 3, “The Case for Day Bombing”; James Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here”: General Ira Eaker and the Command of the Air (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1986), 217–20; Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: Evolution of British and American Ideas About Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 214–15.
18 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 97, “Casablanca Notes,” January 17 and 19, 1943; FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 165, Folder 7, ANFA Meeting minutes, January 18, 1943.
19 Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 221. The sentence ran, “It keeps German defenses alerted around the clock, 24 hours of the day.”
20 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 97, “Casablanca Notes,” January 18 and 20, 1943; Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper & Row, 1949), 395–97; Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 221–22.
21 TNA, AIR 8/1076, Churchill to Attlee, January 21, 1943.
22 Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany (London: HMSO, 1961), 4:153–54, “Combined Chiefs of Staff Directive for the Bomber Offensive from the United Kingdom.”
23 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 97, “Casablanca Notes,” January 25 to January 31, 1943; TNA, AIR 8/425, Bottomley to Harris, February 4, 1943.
24 Slessor, Central Blue, 448.
25 TNA, AIR 9/424, note by director of plans, August 24, 1942; JPS, “Anglo-U.S. Bombing Policy,” August 18, 1942.
26 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 66, Report on AWPD-42, September 19, 1942.
27 LC, Portal papers, Folder 4/File 1, Arnold to Portal, December 10, 1942; Portal to Churchill, December 20, 1942.
28 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eaker to Portal, August 30, 1943.
29 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, “Status of the Combined Bomber Offensive from U.K.,” August 7, 1943, 1.
30 TNA, AIR 14/739A, Harris to Eaker, April 15, 1943.
31 Ibid., Harris to Portal, April 9, 1943, encl. “The United States Contribution to the Bomber Offensive in 1943,” 2.
32 Ibid., War Cabinet, CoS, “An Estimate of the Effects of an Anglo-American Bomber Offensive against Germany,” November 3, 1942.
33 TNA, FO 837/1315, “Bombers’ Baedeker: Guide to the Economic Importance of German Towns and Cities,” January 1943 edition.
34 RAFM, Harris papers, Misc. Box A, Folder 4, “One Hundred Towns of Leading Economic Importance to the German War Effort.”
35 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Portal to Eaker, February 28, 1943.
36 TNA, AIR 14/1779, minutes of meeting in the Air Ministry, March 1, 1943, 2.
37 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, Eaker to Spaatz, April 13, 1943, encl. Air War Plans memorandum, “The Combined Bomber Offensive from the United Kingdom.”
38 Ibid., “Status of Combined Bomber Offensive,” August 7, 1943, 1.
39 Ibid., memorandum from Arnold to Spaatz, “Report of the Committee of Operations Analysts with Respect to Economic Targets within the Western Axis,” March 8, 1943.
40 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eaker to Portal, April 2, 1943; TNA, AIR 8/1103, Arnold to Portal, March 24, 1943; Portal to Eaker, April 9, 1943; Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 250–53.
41 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/42, Bufton to Portal, April 8, 1943; “The Bombing Offensive from the U.K.,” and covering note from RAF liaison at Eaker’s HQ; Stephen McFarland and Wesley Newton, To Command the Sky: The Battle for Air Superiority over Germany, 1942–1944 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1991), 92–94.
42 TNA, AIR 8/1103, Harris to Eaker, April 15, 1943. For Air Ministry views on German fighters see AIR 9/423, memorandum, director of plans, March 22, 1943.
43 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.16, Col. C. Cabell to Eaker, May 27, 1943; Box I.20, Eaker to Portal, June 1, 1943.
44 Ibid., Box I.16, Kuter to Eaker, July 6, 1943; Eaker to Kuter, July 22, 1943; TNA, AIR 8/1103, CCS meeting, June 4, 1943; minute, Bottomley to Portal, June 10, 1943; Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:160, Bottomley to Harris, September 3, 1943.
45 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Eaker, July 28, 1943.
46 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 4, Portal to Churchill, November 9, 1942.
47 TNA, AIR 20/2025, Air Ministry statistics, RAF personnel, establishment and casualties, 1939–45.
48 RAFM, Harris papers, H67, “Establishment and Strength of Ancillary Staff, 31 July 1943.”
49 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3, Exercise Thunderbolt, précis no. 10, “Administrative Aspects of the Bomber Offensive”; SZ/BBSU/2, minute for Zuckerman from Claude Pelly, June 21, 1946; LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Harris to Balfour, January 12, 1943, on the transition from grass to concrete runways.
50 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eaker to Harris, January 4, 1943; Box I.21, Eighth Air Force memorandum, “Supply and Maintenance” [n.d.]; “Report of Lt. General Ira Eaker on USAAF Activities in the United Kingdom,” December 31, 1943, 3; Brereton Greenhous, Stephen Harris, William Johnston, and William Rawling, The Crucible of War, 1939–1945: The Official History of the Royal Canadian Air Force, vol. 3 (Toronto: Toronto University Press/Department of National Defence, 1994), 616, 631, 636.
51 PArch, Balfour papers, BAL/4, RCAF Station, Trenton, “The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, 1939–1945” (Ottawa, 1949), 3–8.
52 Gilbert Guinn, The Arnold Scheme: British Pilots, the American South and the Allies’ Daring Plan (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2007), 484, 541.
53 John Herington, Air War Against Germany and Italy, 1939–1945 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1954), 450–51, 452, 454, 547–51.
54 Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 616, 627–29, 634–35.
55 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.21, “Report of Lt. General Ira Eaker,” 1; Donald Miller, Eighth Air Force: The American Bomber Crews in Britain (London: Aurum Press, 2007), 71–72.
56 AFHRA, CD A5835, “Eighth Air Force: Growth, Development and Operations 1 December 1942–31 December 1943,” Air Force Supply and Maintenance, chart of Serviceability B-17s, B-24s.
57 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eighth Air Force, “Supply and Maintenance” [n.d]; “Report of Lt. General Ira Eaker,” 7.
58 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 89, Spaatz to Arnold, May 28, 1943, encl. “Organization of the Eighth Air Force” by Follett Bradley; “The Bradley Plan for the United Kingdom” [n.d.], charts i, iv; Summary of Personnel Requirements for the VIII Air Force Service Command; Gen. Barney Giles to Eaker, August 26, 1943; Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 289.
59 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Arnold, June 19, 1943.
60 Ibid., Box I.17, Arnold to Eaker, June 10, 1943; Eaker to Arnold, June 12, 1943.
61 Ibid., Arnold to Gen. Devers, June 29, 1943.
62 Ibid., Box I.16, Eaker to Col. Edgar Sorensen, Washington, DC, January 11, 1943.
63 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Hansell to Eaker and Longfellow, February 26, 1943, 4–5.
64 AFHRA, 520.056-188, Eighth Air Force Statistical Summary, Aircraft Loss Rate. In January the figure was 7.5 percent, in February 8.1 percent, in March 3.2 percent, and in April 7.8 percent.
65 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.16, Brig. Gen. J. Bevans (Assistant Chief of Staff, Personnel) to Eaker, May 1, 1943; Eaker to Arnold, June 22, 1943.
66 Miller, Eighth Air Force, 221.
67 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 70, Brig. Gen. C. Chauncey to all Eighth Air Force commanders, December 18, 1942.
68 Ibid., HQ Eighth Air Force, Provost Marshal’s “Report on Conduct of Troops with Regard to the British,” 1, 3–4.
69 Ibid., Eighth Air Force, “Anglo-American Relations,” September 20, 1943.
70 NC, Cherwell papers, G195, letter from MAP to War Cabinet, December 12, 1942; R. Ewell (Office of Scientific Research and Development) to Cherwell, December 12, 1942.
71 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Arnold, June 19, 1943: “The B-17 and B-24 are still useful types but their effectiveness will be reduced sharply by the end of the year.”
72 Ibid., Box I.17, telegram from Arnold to Eaker, June 10, 1943.
73 Ibid., telegram from Eaker to Arnold, June 12, 1943.
74 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 316, Gen. Anderson’s Diary, 1943–45, entries for February 22, March 15, May 1, May 29.
75 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.17, Eaker to Arnold, June 29, 1943. See Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 271–78, for a full account of the acrimonious exchange.
76 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.17, Arnold to Eaker, June 29, 1943.
77 TNA, AIR 20/283, Bomber Command Operations, February–November 1943, January 2, 1944.
78 Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 658–60; Randall Wakelam, The Science of Bombing: Operational Research in RAF Bomber Command (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2009), 119–21, 139.
79 RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 7, Signals Branch, HQ Bomber Command, “War in the Ether: Europe 1939–1945,” October 1945, 14–16. “Boozer” was unable to detect enemy Airborne Interception radar at more than 1,500 yards, while “Monica” and “Boozer” interfered with each other when used together.
80 RAFM, Harris papers, H55, speech to the 21st Army Group HQ, May 14, 1945; TNA, AIR 20/283, Bomber Command Operations; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, “Comparison of Bombing Effort During the Year 1943,” February 10, 1944.
81 See Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 657–67, for a lucid account of the Ruhr operations.
82 Ralf Blank, “The Battle of the Ruhr, 1943: Aerial Warfare Against an Industrial Region,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 35–48.
83 Nicolaus von Below, At Hitler’s Side: The Memoirs of Hitler’s Luftwaffe Adjutant, 1937–1945 (London: Greenhill, 2001), 169–70.
84 Willi A. Boelcke, ed., The Secret Conferences of Dr. Goebbels, 1939–1943 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1967), 388–89.
85 Heinz Boberach, ed., Meldungen aus dem Reich: Die geheimen Lageberichte des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS, 1938–1945 (Herrsching: Pawlak Verlag, 1984), 13:4983, 5021, reports for March 22, March 29, 1943.
86 Edward Westermann, Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 200–202.
87 Ibid., 201–2; Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 662–63.
88 John A. MacBean and Arthur S. Hogben, Bombs Gone: The Development and Use of British Air-Dropped Weapons from 1912 to the Present Day (Wellingborough: Patrick Stephens, 1990), 158–61.
89 TNA, AIR 14/840, minute for the C-in-C by Saundby, February 14, 1943.
90 Ibid., Harris minute, April 15, 1943.
91 MacBean and Hogben, Bombs Gone, 164–69; Martin Middlebrook and Chris Everitt, The Bomber Command War Diaries (Leicester: Midland Publishing, 2000), 386–88; Olaf Groehler, Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1990), 154–56.
92 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/AEAF/14, Bomber Command, ORS, “The Operational Use of Oboe Mark 1A, December 1942–June 1943,” 3–4.
93 TNA, AIR 20/283, HQ Bomber Command, ORS Report, May 27, 1943; original evasion instructions in AIR 14/206, Tactical Committee paper 31, revised February 1943.
94 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS Civilian Defense Division: Final Report, October 26, 1945, 3; Hitler’s comment in Below, At Hitler’s Side, 172.
95 TNA, AIR 8/1109, JIC, “Effects of Bombing Offensive on German War Effort,” July 22, 1943.
96 TNA, AIR 20/476, Air Ministry DoI, “Effects of Air Raids on Labour and Production,” August 16, 1943, 1–2; O. Lawrence (MEW) to Morley (BOps 1), September 6, 1943; note from Lawrence to Bufton, October 24, 1943.
97 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/42, Gen. Frank Andrews (U.S. supreme commander in United Kingdom) to Gen. Marshall and Gen. Arnold, April 3, 1943.
98 Roger A. Freeman, The Mighty Eighth War Diary (London: Jane’s, 1981), 42–73.
99 TNA, AIR 8/1109, JIC, “Effects of Bombing Offensive,” 1; AIR 9/423, director of plans minute, March 15, 1943.
100 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/24, BOps 1 to Group Captain Barnett, November 1, 1941; Draft App. B [n.d. but late October 1941].
101 TNA, AIR 20/4768, BOps memorandum, February 25, 1942.
102 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/OEMU/50/7, “Note for Advisers’ Meeting,” August 12, 1942.
103 Ibid., 9th Meeting of RE8 Advisory Group, September 16, 1942; 10th Meeting of RE8 Advisory Group, September 24, 1942; 15th Meeting of RE8 Advisory Group, October 29, 1942.
104 Ibid., SZ/OEMU/50/8, RE8 report, “German Domestic Architecture,” April 7, 1943, 1–2.
105 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, minutes of meeting at the Ministry of Works, October 9, 1941; R. Ewell (Petroleum Warfare Section) to D. A. C. Dewdney, December 22, 1942.
106 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/24, BOps 1, draft report, “Incendiary Attack,” November 8, 1941; BOps 1 to Peirse [n.d. but November 1941]; Report for DDBOps, “Types and Weights of German Incendiary Bombs,” October 11, 1941.
107 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, DBOps, note on an article in Die Sirene, October 2, 1942. The article in the German civil defense journal explained how to fight fires even with the threat of antipersonnel bombs.
108 Ibid., Bufton papers, 3/26 DBOps to Director of Research, Air Ministry [n.d. but late October 1942]. Some 40 percent of explosive incendiaries had a three-minute delay, 5 percent from six to ten minutes.
109 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/27, BOPs 1, “Present and Future Incendiary Technique as Applied to Area Attack,” October 13, 1942, 1, 2–4.
110 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 80, Bufton memorandum, “Incendiary Attack of German Cities,” January 1943, 3.
111 Armaments Design Establishment, The Development of British Incendiary Bombs During the Period of the 1939–1945 World War, Ministry of Supply, December 1946, 34–37.
112 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/28, NFPA, “Conflagrations in America since 1914,” Boston, 1942; NFPA, “National Defense Fires,” March 1942.
113 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, R. Ewell to Wing Commander A. Morley (BOPs 1), December 3, 1942, encl. Laiming to R. Russell (Standard Oil Development Co.), October 29, 1942, 3.
114 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/OEMU/50/8, RE8 report, “German Domestic Architecture,” 1; LC, Arnold papers, Reel 199, Maj. Gen. O. Echols to Arnold, April 28, 1943.
115 James McElroy, “The Work of the Fire Protection Engineers in Planning Fire Attacks,” in Horatio Bond, ed., Fire and the Air War: A Symposium of Expert Observations (Boston: National Fire Protection Association, 1946), 122–30.
116 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 199, Arnold to Maj. Gen. Echols, April 26, 1943.
117 NARA, RG 107, Lovett papers, Box 9, Joint Magnesium Committee Report, June 1, 1942, 2, 12.
118 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 76, HQ Eighth Air Force, A-5 Division memorandum, “Theory and Tactics of Incendiary Bombing,” including Table 2, “Incendiary Bombing Data for German Cities.”
119 AFHRA, 520.805, Eighth Air Force Chemical Section History, 1–4; Report for May 1945, 2.
120 TNA, AIR 40/1271, Target Committee, Report of 87th Meeting, April 9, 1943.
121 TNA, AIR 48/33, USSBS, Hamburg Field Report no. 1, 2. There were seventy-eight in 1940, thirty-eight in 1941, ten in 1942. On 1943 see BA-B, R 3102/10046, “Zerstörung von Wohnraum in deutschen Städten, 1942–43.”
122 TNA, FO 837/1315, “Bomber’s Baedeker,” January 1943, 131–37.
123 TNA, AIR 14/1779, report for Dickens and Tizard from RE8, “Apparent Relative Effectiveness of I.B. and H.E. Attack against German Towns,” January 7, 1943.
124 RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 7, “War in the Ether: Europe, 1939–1945,” October 1945, 33–36.
125 Details in Alfred Price, Instruments of Darkness: The History of Electronic Warfare, 1939–1945 (London: Greenhill, 2005), 124–33, 153–54.
126 TNA, PREM 3/11/8, Tizard memorandum for Churchill, July 22, 1943; Churchill to Ismay, July 23, 1943; Portal to Sinclair, July 24, 1943; Churchill, note for Ismay, July 30, 1943.
127 For an excellent account of the operations see Keith Lowe, Inferno: The Devastation of Hamburg, 1943 (London: Viking, 2007), pt. 2.
128 Westermann, Flak, 213–14.
129 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 112.
130 Ibid., 112–13; Westermann, Flak, 214–15; Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 78–79.
131 Horatio Bond, “The Fire Attacks on German Cities,” in Fire and the Air War, 95–97; Hans Brunswig, Feuersturm über Hamburg: Die Luftangriffe auf Hamburg im 2. Weltkrieg und ihre Folgen (Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, 1985), 269–71.
132 TNA, AIR 20/7287, Home Office, January 1946, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg on the Heavy Raids on Hamburg, 1 Dec 1943,” 21–22; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 113–14. Even escape into Hamburg’s waterways proved fatal as people plunged into near-boiling water.
133 Civil Defense Liaison Office, Fire Effects of Bombing Attacks, prepared for the National Security Resources Board, November 1950, 8–9; Horatio Bond, “Fire Casualties of the German Attacks,” in Fire and the Air War, 113–18.
134 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 119; TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 17; Brunswig, Feuersturm über Hamburg, 278–79; Ursula Büttner, “‘Gomorrha’ und die Folgen der Bombenkrieg,” in Hamburg Forschungsstelle für Zeitgeschichte, Hamburg im “Dritten Reich” (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2005), 618, 764.
135 TNA, AIR 40/425, Immediate Interpretation Report, July 27, 1943.
136 IWM, MD, vol. 63, “Besprechung beim Reichsmarschall,” July 13, 1943.
137 BA-MA, RL 3/213, Flugzeug-Programme, Studie 1013, December 16, 1942.
138 IWM, MD, vol. 63, “Niederschrift der Besprechung des Reichsmarschall mit Industrierat,” October 14, 1943.
139 Ibid., vol. 52, minute on radar, May 7, 1945; Göring decree, “Verantwortlichkeit und Durchführung des Funkmess-und Funknavigationsprogramms,” May 2, 1943; Price, Instruments of Darkness, 136–39, 150.
140 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/101, Vorstudien zur Luftkriegsgeschichte, Heft 8: Reichsluftverteidigung: Teil B, Flakabwehr [n.d. 1944], 28–30; Westermann, Flak, 216–19. See also Ludger Tewes, Jugend im Krieg: Von Luftwaffenhelfern und Soldaten, 1939–1945 (Essen: Reimar Hobbing, 1989), 37–50.
141 TNA, AIR 20/4761, DoI to Bufton, August 21, 1943.
142 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Eaker, July 28, 1943; Eaker to Lovett, August 9, 1943.
143 TNA, AIR 8/1109, Harris to Portal, August 12, 1943.
144 TNA, AIR 14/1779, Bomber Command, ORS, Survey of Damage to Cities, November 29, 1943.
145 TNA, AIR 14/739A, HQ Bomber Command, Intelligence Staff, “Progress of RAF Bomber Offensive against Germany,” November 30, 1943, 1–2.
146 TNA, AIR 20/4761, O. Lawrence (MEW) to Morley, September 6, 1943; Lawrence to Bufton, October 24, 1943.
147 TNA, FO 837/26, “Note from Economic Intelligence,” September 17, 1943; “Notes on Economic Intelligence,” MEW meeting, October 1, 1943.
148 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 203, J. K. Galbraith, “Preliminary Appraisal of Achievement of Strategic Bombing of Germany” [n.d.], 6.
149 Friends House archive, Foley papers, MSS 448 3/2, Daily Telegraph article, August 6, 1943.
150 Ibid., Thomas Foley to Kingsley Martin (editor, New Statesman), November 3, 1943; “What Happened in Hamburg,” leaflet reprint of article in Basler Nachrichten; MS 448 2/2, Corder Catchpool (Bombing Restriction Committee) to Foley, January 8, 1943; Bombing Restriction Committee leaflet, “Bomb, Burn and Ruthlessly Destroy” [n.d. but late 1943], 2.
151 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Eaker, July 1, 1943.
152 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, “Status of Combined Bomber Offensive from U.K.,” August 8, 1943, 4.
153 TNA, AIR 8/1109, telegram Harris to Portal, August 12, 1943.
154 TNA, AIR 8/435, telegram Portal to VCAS, August 19, 1943; VCAS to Portal, August 21, 1943.
155 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, USSTAF DoI, “An Evaluation of the Effects of the Bomber Offensive on ‘Overlord’ and ‘Dragoon,’” September 5, 1944, 1.
156 TNA, AIR 14/783, Portal to Harris, October 7, 1943, encl. “Effort (Planned and Effected) USAF 8th Bomber Command.”
157 TNA, AIR 14/739A, “Conduct of the Strategic Bomber Offensive before Preparatory Stage of ‘Overlord,’” January 17, 1944; LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Arnold to Spaatz, April 24, 1944.
158 TNA, AIR 8/1167, “Report by Chief of Air Staff and Commanding General US Eighth Air Force,” November 7, 1943, 3–4.
159 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, HQ Bomber Command, “Outline of Future Intentions for the Continuation and Intensification of the Bomber Offensive,” November 4, 1943.
160 TNA, AIR 8/425, Harris to Portal and Sinclair, December 7, 1943.
161 Details in Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 131–33; Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 89–91.
162 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 133–34; Ferdinanrd Golücke, Schweinfurt und der strategische Luftkrieg, 1943 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1980), 356–57.
163 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 134; Richard G. Davis, Bombing the European Axis Powers: A Historical Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive, 1939–1945 (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2006), 158–61; Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 300–302.
164 Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 316.
165 Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 119; Davis, Bombing the European Axis Powers, 176, 1 82–84.
166 AFHRA, 520.056-188, Eighth Air Force, Statistical Summary, Eighth Air Force Operations, “Aircraft Loss Rate on Combat Missions.”
167 TNA, AIR 20/283, Bomber Command operational statistics, February–November 1943, January 1, 1944; AIR 20/2025, Strength of Air Force Personnel, Operational Squadrons, 1940–1945.
168 Details from Middlebrook and Everitt, Bomber Command War Diaries, 422–28.
169 TNA, AIR 40/345, AI 3c, Raid Assessment Summary, October 31, 1943.
170 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 144–47.
171 TNA, AIR 20/4761, RE8 report, “The Economic Effects of Attacks in Force on German Targets, March–December 1943,” Table 2.
172 TNA, AIR 22/203, Bomber Command War Room, Total Wastage 1939– 1945.
173 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Eaker, September 19, 1943.
174 TNA, AIR 8/1103, paper prepared for CAS, October 11, 1943, 4.
175 TNA, AIR 14/783, Portal to Harris, October 7, 1943, encl. air staff memorandum, “Extent to Which the Eighth U.S.A.A.F. and Bomber Command Have Been Able to Implement the G.A.F. Plan,” 1.
176 RAFM, Harris papers, H47, Bottomley to Harris, “Special Brief for Schweinfurt Operation,” July 25, 1943; Harris to Bottomley, December 20, 1943, 3.
177 TNA, AIR 14/739A, Harris to Bottomley, December 28, 1943.
178 TNA, AIR 8/425, Bottomley to Harris, December 23, 1943; AIR 20/4761, “Bomber Command’s Comments on R.E.8’s Paper,” March 13, 1944.
179 TNA, AIR 48/65, USSBS, Military Analysis Division, Report no. 2, “Weather Factors in Combat Bombardment Operations in the European Theater,” November 3, 1945, 1–3, 15, 23.
180 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Col. D. Zimmerman (Director of Weather) to Hansell, September 7, 1942, 2.
181 Ibid., Box 173, Report by AAF Scientific Advisory Group, “War and Weather,” May 1946, 4–6.
182 LC, LeMay papers, Box 8, 305th Bomb Group: Summary of Events, November 1, 1942, to December 31, 1943.
183 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/50, “Area Attack Employing ‘Gee’” [n.d. but early 1942], 1.
184 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Harris to Portal, December 12, 1944.
185 Transcript of interview with Maurice Chick, November 1995, 49–50 (in author’s possession).
186 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 76, Col. William Garland to Anderson, February 28, 1943; Anderson to all Wing Commanders, September 11, 1943, encl. ORS Report, “Effect of Spacing Between Combat Wings on Bombing Accuracy,” September 11, 1943, 2.
187 Ibid., Anderson to LeMay, September 8, 1943.
188 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eaker to Portal, March 15, 1943; Eaker to Gen. Larry Kuter, September 20, 1943.
189 Davis, Bombing the European Axis Powers, 176–78; Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 118–19; W. Hays Park, “‘Precision’ and ‘Area’ Bombing: Who Did Which, and When?,” Journal of Strategic Studies 18 (1995): 149–57.
190 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 80, Hugh Odishaw (MIT), “Radar Bombing in the Eighth Air Force,” July 1946, 88–89.
191 Ibid., Eighth Air Force ORS to Doolittle, June 13, 1944, encl. “Bombing Accuracy”; Hays Park, “‘Precision’ and ‘Area’ Bombing,” 154–56.
192 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 80, Odishaw, “Radar Bombing in the Eighth Air Force,” 106.
193 TNA, AIR 20/283, Bomber Command Operations, February 1943 to November 1943.
194 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/AEAF/14, Bomber Command ORS, “The Operational Use of Oboe Mark IA: December 1942–June 1943”; “The H2S Blind-Bombing Attack on Ludwigshafen, 17/18 November 1943,” December 18, 1943; ORS, “Accuracy of H2S as a Blind-Bombing Device,” December 16, 1943. See too Wakelam, Science of Bombing, 119–21, 158.
195 TNA, AIR 48/67, USSBS Military Analysis Division Report no. 4, November 3, 1945, 3–4 and Exhibit B, “Sample Field Order from Bomber Command.”
196 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.21, “Target Selection Principles Developed by the Eighth Air Force” [n.d. but late 1943?], 1–5.
197 Mark Guglielmo, “The Contribution of Economists to Military Intelligence during World War II,” Journal of Economic History 68 (2008): 132–34; Barry Katz, Foreign Intelligence: Research and Analysis in the Office of Strategic Services, 1942–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 114–18; Walter W. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy: General Eisenhower’s Decision of March 25, 1944 (Aldershot: Gower, 1981), 16–21.
198 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Col. R. Garrison (Adjutant General’s office), “Procedure Followed in Planning an Operation,” July 9, 1943, 1–8, and Annex I, “Procedure in Planning an Operation: Duties and Responsibilities,” 1–5.
199 LC, LeMay papers, Box 4, HQ 1st Bombardment Wing, “Operational Procedure,” October 12, 1942; HQ 1st Bombardment Wing, “Tactics and Techniques of Bombardment” [n.d.].
200 Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 93–94, report by Lt. Col. Beirne Lay; other quotations from interviews with Harold Nash, November 3, 1995, 20; Peter Hinchcliffe, October 24, 1995, 15; Barney D’Ath-Weston, November 1995, 22.
201 AFHRA, CD A5385, “Growth, Development and Operations”: Motion Picture Attendance, December 1, 1942–November 30, 1943; Stage Show Attendance.
202 Ibid., Eighth Air Force: Combat Crew Casualties; Mark Wells, Courage and Air Warfare: The Allied Aircrew Experience in the Second World War (London: Frank Cass, 1995), 31–32.
203 NARA, RG 107, Lovett papers, Box 9, Office of the Air Surgeon, Psychological Branch, “Report on Survey of Aircrew Personnel in the Eighth, Ninth, and Fifteenth Air Forces,” April 1944, 35.
204 FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 82, memorandum from Roosevelt to Gen. Watson, encl. report from Lt. Col. John Murray on psychiatry in the Army Air Force, January 4, 1944, 3–4. See too Miller, Eighth Air Force, 128–34.
205 Wells, Courage and Air Warfare, 51.
206 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.16, Col. C. Cabell (HQ AAF) to Eaker, May 27, 1943.
207 NARA, RG 107, Box 9, “Report on Survey of Aircrew Personnel,” 82–85, 88; Wells, Courage and Air Warfare, 174.
208 Edgar Jones, “‘LMF’: The Use of Psychiatric Stigma in the Royal Air Force During the Second World War,” Journal of Military History 70 (2006): 440–41, 443–44.
209 TNA, AIR 49/357, E. C. Jewesbury, “Work and Problems of an RAF Neuropsychiatric Centre,” July 1943, 10–11.
210 Ibid., 16–17.
211 Wells, Courage and Air Warfare, 204–5; Jones, “‘LMF,’” 452.
212 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Eaker to Col. George Brownwell (War Dept., Washington, DC), November 28, 1943.
213 NARA, RG 107, Box 9, “Report on Survey of Aircrew Personnel,” 58, 86.
214 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, “Comparison of Bombing Effort during the Year 1943,” February 10, 1944.
215 TNA, AIR/739, A. F. Inglis (AI) to Harris, December 13, 1943; Harris to Bottomley, December 28, 1943.
216 TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, JIC Report, “Probabilities of a German Collapse,” September 9, 1943, encl. “Annex: Similarities Between Germany’s Situation in August 1918 and August 1943,” 6.
217 TNA, AIR 8/1167, JIC Report, “Effects of Bombing Offensive on German War Effort,” November 12, 1943, Annex by PWE and AI, “Allied Air Attacks and German Morale,” 1, 3, 6–8; PREM 3/193/6A, Desmond Morton to Churchill, January 21, 1944.
218 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, “Plan for the Completion of the Combined Bomber Offensive,” March 5, 1944, Annex, “Prospect for Ending War by Air Attack Against German Morale,” 1.
219 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 193, “Germany’s War Potential: An Appraisal by the Committee of Historians for the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces,” December 1943, 1, 2, 20–23.
220 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 73, OSS Bulletin, March 11, 1944, 1. For a general discussion of American opinion see Richard Overy, “‘The Weak Link’?: The Perception of the German Working Class by RAF Bomber Command, 1940–1945,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 20–21; Katz, Foreign Intelligence, 63–70.
221 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/53, Lecture on Bombing, Spring 1944, 7.
222 USAFA, McDonald papers, Box 8, Folder 8, “Extracts from News Digest, 30 March 1944,” Internal Conditions, “The Air Offensive,” 1.
223 LC, Arnold papers, Reel 193, “Germany’s War Potential,” 2.
224 LC, Doolittle papers, Box 19, Doolittle to all Eighth Air Force commanders, January 19, 1944, 1.
Chapter 3. The “Battle of Germany,” 1944–45
1 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.19, Lovett to Arnold, June 19, 1943, 2.
2 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, script of teletype conference, Anderson for Arnold, Item Number II, February 25, 1944, 9.
3 USAFA, Hansell papers, Ser. III, Box 1, Folder 2, “Salient Features of Various Plans: AWPD-1,” 3.
4 Stephen McFarland and Wesley Newton, To Command the Sky: The Battle for Air Superiority over Germany, 1942–1944 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1991), 103–4.
5 Details from John F. Guilmartin, “The Aircraft That Decided World War II: Aeronautical Engineering and Grand Strategy, 1933–1945,” 44th Harmon Memorial Lecture, USAFA, Colorado Springs, CO, 2001, 16–18, 20–23; Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Center for Air Force History, 1993), 361–64.
6 FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 82, Roosevelt to Arnold, November 10, 1942; Arnold to Roosevelt, November 12, 1942.
7 McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 138–40.
8 Roger A. Freeman, The Mighty Eighth War Diary (London: Jane’s 1981), 148, 183–84, 202–3, 206–7.
9 AFHRA, CD A5835, Eighth Air Force Tactical Development, 1942–1945, 1; McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 106, 112.
10 McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 114–15, 145; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 302; James Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here”: General Ira Eaker and the Command of the Air (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1986), 273–76, 288.
11 David R. Mets, Master of Airpower: General Carl A. Spaatz (Novato, CA: Presidio, 1998), 179–80.
12 Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 336–39; Mets, Master of Airpower, 180–81.
13 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 84, Spaatz to Doolittle, January 26, 1944; Box 143, Spaatz to Doolittle, January 28, 1944.
14 LC, Doolittle papers, Box 19, Doolittle to Spaatz, March 11, 1944; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 299–300.
15 AFHRA, CD A1722, Army Air Forces Evaluation Board, Eighth Air Force, “Tactical Development, August 1942–May 1945,” 50.
16 Ibid., 50–55; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 358–63; McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 141, 164–66.
17 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, script of teletype conference, Anderson for Arnold, February 27, 1944, 4.
18 IWM, MD 61/5139, minutes of GL meeting, August 28, 1943.
19 Nicolaus von Below, At Hitler’s Side: The Memoirs of Hitler’s Luftwaffe Adjutant, 1937–1945 (London: Greenhill, 2001), 176–77.
20 McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 118–20; British Air Ministry, The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 1933–1945 (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1983), 239, 297–98.
21 Lt. Gen. Josef Schmid, “German Dayfighting in the Defense of the Reich 15 Sept 1943 to the End of the War,” in David Isby, ed., Fighting the Bombers: The Luftwaffe’s Struggle against the Allied Bomber Offensive (London: Greenhill, 2003), 133–40; Josef Schmid, “German Nightfighting from June 1943 to May 1945,” in ibid., 88–89, 95–97; Edward Westermann, Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 235–36.
22 On German intelligence appreciation of Allied operations see TsAMO, f.500, o.957971, d.450, Führungsstab 1c, “Einzelnachrichten des 1c Dienstes West der Luftwaffe,” April 29, 1944; f.500, o.957971, d.448, “Einzelnachrichten des 1c Dienstes West: Britische Nachteinsatz,” May 6, 1944; f.500, o.957971, d.433, “Einzelnachrichten des 1c Dienstes West,” June 16, 1944.
23 Alfred Price, Instruments of Darkness: The History of Electronic Warfare, 1939–1945 (London: Greenhill, 2005), 175–78, 184–86, 195–96, 205–6. On “Carpet” and countermeasures see RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 7, “War in the Ether,” 45–46.
24 Westermann, Flak, 234–35.
25 Ibid., 238–41.
26 BA-MA, RL 2 IV/101, Vorstudien zur Luftkriegsgeschichte, Heft 8, 32–33; British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 283–85.
27 Westermann, Flak, 247–49.
28 BA-B, RL 3/237, GL C-Amt, Studie 1036; Lutz Budrass, Flugzeugindustrie und Luftrüstung in Deutschland, 1918–1945 (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1998), 868–69; Horst Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg in Europa, 1943–1944,” in Horst Boog ed., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg. Band 7: Das Deutsche Reich in der Defensive (Stuttgart: DVA, 2001), 309–11.
29 IWM, EDS AL/1746, Karl-Otto Saur interrogation, August 10, 1945, 6.
30 IWM, MD, vol. 56, 2701–13, memorandum by Milch, “Der Jägerstab.”
31 Calculated from Budrass, Flugzeugindustrie und Luftrüstung, 836. Serviceability rates in Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany (London: HMSO), 4:501.
32 McFarland and Newton, To Command the Sky, 135; Schmid, “German Dayfighting,” 147.
33 AFHRA, CD A5835, Tactical Development, 99. Elementary training declined from 100 hours in 1942 to 70 in 1943 and 52 in 1944; Fighter School hours declined from 60 to 40; OTU hours were 50 in 1942, 16 to 18 in 1943, 20 in 1944.
34 Schmid, “German Dayfighting,” 140–42.
35 Adolf Galland, The First and the Last (London: Methuen, 1955), 189, 200–201.
36 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Anderson to Spaatz, February 28, 1944, 2.
37 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 94, statistics on total tonnage dropped by USAAF and RAF, January 1944 to May 1944.
38 TNA, AIR 14/739A, “Conduct of Strategic Bomber Offensive Before Preparatory Stage of ‘Overlord,’” January 17, 1944, 4–5.
39 Ibid., HQ Bomber Command, AI, “Progress of RAF Bomber Offensive Against German Industry,” February 19, 1944; Harris to Balfour, March 2, 1944.
40 CCO, Richards archive, File IV/Folder B, Portal to Sinclair, January 29, 1944.
41 W. A. Jacobs, “The British Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany in World War II,” in R. Cargill Hall, ed., Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1998), 139–40.
42 TNA, FO 935/126, REDept, “Preliminary Attack Assessment, Berlin,” March 23, 1944, 1, 3.
43 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 2:193.
44 Williamson Murray, Luftwaffe: Strategy for Defeat, 1933–1945 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1985), 198–99.
45 Stephen McFarland and Wesley Newton, “The American Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany in World War II,” in R. Cargill Hall, ed., Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment (Washington, DC: Center for Air Force History, 1998), 214–16; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 322–26.
46 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/101, “Analysis of M.E.W. Estimates of German War Production” [n.d.], 10.
47 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 68, HQ USSTAF, “The Allied Air Offensive Against Germany and Principal Criticisms by the Enemy Leaders,” June 1945, Table C, Interrogation of Hermann Göring, June 1, 1945.
48 TNA, AIR 10/3873, BBSU, “German Experience in the Underground Transfer of War Industries,” 12.
49 Budrass, Flugzeugindustrie und Luftrüstung, 868; Horst Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg,” 101–3.
50 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, Committee of Experts, “Plan for the Completion of the Combined Bomber Offensive,” March 5, 1944, 2–4; Barry Katz, Foreign Intelligence: Research and Analysis in the Office of Strategic Services, 1942–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 19–20; F. Harry Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 3 (London: HMSO, 1988), pt. 2, 497–99.
51 Walter W. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy: General Eisenhower’s Decision of March 25, 1944 (Aldershot: Gower, 1981), 53–55.
52 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 398–400; Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy, 68.
53 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 370–79; Murray, Luftwaffe, 215.
54 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, script of teletype conference, Anderson for Arnold, Item Number II, February 25, 1944, 12.
55 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.35, “Decline of the GAF: Report from Captured Personnel,” forwarded to Military Intelligence Division, March 15, 1945, 6.
56 Heinz Knocke, I Flew for the Führer (London: Evans Brothers, 1953), 148–49.
57 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 379–81.
58 TsAMO, f.500, o.957971, d.448, “Einzelnachrichten des 1c Dienstes West der Luftwaffe,” May 6, 1944, 12.
59 Ian McLachlan and Russell Zorn, Eighth Air Force Bomber Stories: Eyewitness Accounts from American Airmen and British Civilians in the Second World War (Yeovil: Haynes Publishing, 1991), 110–11.
60 AFHRA, CD A1722, Eighth Air Force, “Tactical Development August 1942–May 1945,” 99.
61 Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg,” 110; Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:495; “Nightfighter Direction: Interrogation of Major G. S. Sandmann,” in Isby, Fighting the Bombers, 211.
62 Hans-Detlef von Rohden, “Reich Air Defense,” in Isby, Fighting the Bombers, 38.
63 USAFA, McDonald papers, Ser. V, Box 12, Folder 1, JIC Report, “German Strategy and Capacity to Resist,” August 14, 1944, 1.
64 AHB, Translations, VII/7, 8th Abteilung report, September 22, 1944, “A Forecast of Air Developments in 1945,” 1.
65 IWM, MD, vol. 53, 706–11, report by chief of German Air Force operations staff (Karl Koller), “Erforderlich Mindeststärke der fliegenden Verbände der deutschen Luftwaffe zur Behauptung des mitteleuropäischen Raumes,” May 19, 1944.
66 Calculated from Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:497.
67 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.35, “Decline of the G.A.F.,” 6: “Neither in the East nor South did 50, 80, or 100 of our aircraft ever fly in a body and carry out any major operation. In Russia they flew in ‘Rotten’ of two or ‘Schwärme’ of four . . . our fighter arm had to conduct the fight in a strength to which it was never accustomed.”
68 Sönke Neitzel, Tapping Hitler’s Generals: Transcripts of Secret Conversations, 1942–1945 (Barnsley, UK: Frontline Books, 2007), 114–15, recording of Gen. Bernhard Ramcke, October 16, 1944.
69 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 134, U.S. Military Intelligence Service, HQ Air P/W, interrogation of Hermann Göring, June 1, 1945, 2.
70 Dik Daso, Hap Arnold and the Evolution of American Airpower (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2000), esp. 152–68; on the problems of adjusting to defensive warfare see Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg,” 249–58.
71 AHB, Translations, VII/7, “A Forecast of Air Developments in 1945,” 2–3.
72 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Spaatz to Arnold, September 30, 1944.
73 TNA, AIR 14/739A, Harris to Coryton (Air Ministry), July 19, 1944; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, Portal to Churchill, August 5, 1944.
74 Mark Connelly, “The British People, the Press and the Strategic Air Campaign Against Germany, 1939–1945,” Contemporary British History 16 (2002): 54–55.
75 Hugh Thomas, John Strachey (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973), 219.
76 TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, JIC Report, “German Strategy and Capacity to Resist,” October 16, 1944.
77 AHB, Translations, VII/7, “A Forecast of Air Developments”; VII/IX, “War Appreciation No. 17,” January 15, 1945, 8.
78 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Spaatz to Arnold, July 22, 1944; Spaatz to Arnold, September 3, 1944. See too JIC warnings in Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 3, pt. 2, 595–99.
79 LC, Doolittle papers, Box 18, Doolittle to Arnold, August 2, 1944; Box 19, Doolittle to Spaatz, October 18, 1944.
80 NARA, RG 107, Lovett papers, Box 139, memorandum for Lovett from HQ Army Service Forces, encl. “Periodic Report of Readiness for Chemical Warfare, 1 January 1945,” 2.
81 Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Gas and Germ Warfare (London: Chatto & Windus, 1982), 110–16.
82 TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, HQ AF, Algiers to the War Office, October 30, 1943 (initialed by Churchill, November 1, 1943).
83 NARA, RG 218, Box 3, “Analysis of Foreign Weapons Division,” report for the commanding general, Army Service Forces, October 26, 1943, forwarded to Arnold. On German plans the best account is Rolf-Dieter Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik im totalen Krieg, 1942–1945,” in Bernhard Kroener, Rolf-Dieter Müller, and Hans Umbreit, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Band 5/2: Organisation und Mobilisierung des deutschen Machtbereichs, 1942–1944/45 (Stuttgart: DVA, 1999), 713–16.
84 NARA, RG 218, Box 19, memorandum for the Gas Warfare Subcommittee, HQ USAAF, January 21, 1944, 3; Maj. Gen. William Porter (chief, Chemical Warfare Service) to JCS, “Present Status of Development of Toxic Gases,” December 6, 1943.
85 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/29, War Cabinet Inter-Service Committee on Chemical Warfare, note by the air staff, January 23, 1944, 2–3, and Annex 1, “Appreciation on Strategic Gas Effort,” 5.
86 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/75, memorandum by Norman Bottomley, “Possibility of the Use of Gas by the Germans to Counter ‘Overlord,’” 1–3.
87 CCAC, Churchill papers, CHAR D.217/4, Churchill to Ismay for the CoS, July 6, 1944; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 3, pt. 2, 576–80.
88 Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik,” 714–15.
89 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, “Plan for Retaliatory Gas Attack on Germany”; NARA, RG 107, Box 139, HQ Army Service Forces memorandum, “Co-Ordinated Anglo-American Chemical Warfare Procurement and Supply Program,” March 10, 1945, 2–3.
90 NARA, RG 218, Box 1, report for the JCS, January 6, 1944, 1.
91 Details in RAFM, Bottomley papers, B2320, Inter-Service Sub-Committee on Biological Warfare, December 22, 1945, App. A, “Biological Warfare: Report to the Secretary of War,” 1–5; NARA, RG 218, Box 1, JCS paper, December 20, 1943, “Implications of Recent Intelligence Regarding Alleged German Secret Weapons.”
92 NARA, RG 218, Box 1, “Defensive Measures Against Bacteriological Warfare,” May 25, 1944; memorandum for Col. Newsome from General Staff, Operations Division, April 10, 1944 (shown to Gen. Marshall and forwarded to Field Marshal John Dill).
93 Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik,” 720–26.
94 See, e.g., USAFA, Hansell papers, Ser. III, Box 1, Folder 1, “Fairchild Lecture,” December 1, 1964, 18–24.
95 Figures from Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, App. 8; Mets, Master of Airpower, 251; Henry Probert, Bomber Harris: His Life and Times (London: Greenhill, 2006), 305–6.
96 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Spaatz to Arnold, September 30, 1944.
97 Mets, Master of Airpower, 258–59; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 488–90.
98 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/43, memorandum by Sq. Ldr. John Strachey (BOps), August 13, 1944; Draft operation, “Thunderclap,” August 15, 1944; Bufton memorandum, August 2, 1944, “Operation Thunderclap.”
99 Directives in Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:174–76, directive from Bottomley to Harris, October 13, 1944. See too Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 494–95.
100 Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, 1904–46: An Autobiography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 301–4; Hugh Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders: The Career of Air Vice-Marshal Sydney Bufton (Stroud: The History Press, 2010), 130–33.
101 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:177–79, “1st November 1944: Directive No. 2 for the Strategic Air Forces in Europe.”
102 “Expert” in CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Harris to Portal, December 12, 1944; Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 135. See too CamUL, Andrew Boyle papers, Add 9429/1B, Harris to Boyle, June 13, 1979: “[Bufton] was a prime example in my view of a Junior Officer in the Air Ministry imagining he could run the Command.”
103 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Harris to Portal, December 12, 1944. See the full discussion of the correspondence in Melinsky, Forming the Pathfinders, 133–35; Probert, Bomber Harris, 309–11.
104 USSBS, “Oil Division: Final Report,” Washington, DC, August 25, 1945, fig. 7.
105 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 76, “Conference on Bombing Accuracy,” HQ USSTAF, March 22–23, 1945; Box 80, Hugh Odishaw, “Radar Bombing in the Eighth Air Force,” 94. See too Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 503–8.
106 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 508.
107 AHB, Translations, VII/23, GAF Air Historical Branch, “Some Effects of the Allied Air Offensive on German Economic Life,” December 7, 1944, 1–2; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 510–12. The best account is Alfred Mierzejewski, The Collapse of the German War Economy: Allied Air Power and the German National Railway (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 191, Table A3.
108 Mierzejewski, Collapse of the German War Economy, 193, Table A5.
109 AHB, Translations, VII/38, Speer to Field Marshal Keitel, “Report on the Effects of Allied Air Activity Against the Ruhr,” November 7, 1944.
110 AFHRA, 520.056-188, Statistical Summary Eighth Air Force Operations: Aircraft Loss Rates on Combat Operations.
111 Fighter losses in Murray, Luftwaffe, 364; jet production in Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg,” 307–8.
112 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Bufton to Bottomley, June 9, 1945; RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 7, “War in the Ether,” App. B, “Bomber Command Loss Rate on German Targets.”
113 Schmid, “German Nightfighting,” 105–6.
114 Details in RAFM, Saundby papers, AC 72/12, Box 7, “War in the Ether,” October 1945, 53–58 and App. F; Saundby (HQ Bomber Command) to all group commanders, October 13, 1944, on keeping radar silence. See also Bill Gunston, Night Fighters: A Development and Combat History (Cambridge: Patrick Stephens, 1976), 125–27; Werner Held and Holger Nauroth, Die deutsche Nachtjagd (Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, 1992), 222–30.
115 Below, At Hitler’s Side, 220–21.
116 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.35, “Decline of the G.A.F.,” 12.
117 Galland, First and Last, 246–49, 251–52, 283–85; LC, Spaatz papers, Box 68, memorandum by George McDonald (G-2, HQ USSTAF), “The Allied Air Offensive Against Germany and Principal Criticisms by Enemy Leaders,” Table F, interrogation of Gen. Galland, May 16, 1945.
118 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Morley (BOps 2) to SHAEF A-3, January 21, 1945.
119 USAFA, McDonald papers, Ser. V, Box 12, Folder 1, JIC SHAEF, “Bombing Policy in Germany,” October 6, 1944.
120 NARA, RG 107, Box 28, Lovett to Arnold, January 9, 1945, 2–3.
121 RAFM, Harris papers, Misc. Box A, Folder 4, “One Hundred Towns of Leading Economic Importance.”
122 AFHRA, Disc MAAF/233, Air Ministry to HQ 15th Air Force, October 14, 1944, additions to target list. (As well as Dresden, the additions were Eberswalde, Plauen, Jenbach, and Obergrafendorf.)
123 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Combined Strategic Targets Committee, “Target Priorities for Attack of Industrial Areas,” November 27, 1944.
124 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, Portal to Churchill, October 4, 1944.
125 Ibid., Folder 6, report by A. H. Birse (Churchill’s interpreter), “Notes on Air Chief Marshal Sir A. Tedder’s Meeting with Marshal Stalin,” January 15, 1945.
126 Probert, Bomber Harris, 318; UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/58, note by the air staff, “Strategic Bombing in Relation to the Present Russian Offensive,” January 25, 1945; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 3, pt. 2, 611.
127 Ian Hunter, ed., Winston and Archie: The Collected Correspondence of Winston Churchill and Archibald Sinclair, 1915–1960 (London: Politico’s, 2005), 410–11: Sinclair to Churchill, January 26, 1945; Churchill to Sinclair, January 26, 1945; Sinclair to Churchill, January 27, 1945.
128 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 6, Portal to Churchill, January 28, 1945.
129 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:301: Bottomley to Harris, January 27, 1945; Sebastian Cox, “The Dresden Raids: Why and How,” in Paul Addison and Jeremy Crang, eds., Firestorm: The Bombing of Dresden, 1945 (London: Pimlico, 2006), 22–25; Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 3, pt. 2, 611.
130 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, “Strategic Bombing in Reaction to the Present Russian Offensive,” note by the air staff for CoS Meeting, January 31, 1945, 1.
131 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 546–48.
132 S. M. Plokhy, Yalta: The Price of Peace (New York: Penguin, 2010), 213–14; AFHRA, K239.046-38, Joseph Angell, “Historical Analysis of the 14–15 February Bombings of Dresden” [n.d. but 1953], 12.
133 RAFM, Harris papers, H136, “Notes on Bomber Command” [n.d. but 1961 or 1962], 7.
134 Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 432; Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 551–53; Olaf Groehler, Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1990), 388–89, 398–400; Richard Overy, “The Post-War Debate,” in Addison and Crang, Firestorm, 129–30.
135 Götz Bergander, Dresden im Luftkrieg: Vorgeschichte—Zerstörung—Folgen (Munich: Heyne Verlag, 1985), 256–57; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 412; Matthias Gretzschel, “Dresden im Dritten Reich,” in Hamburg und Dresden im Dritten Reich: Bombenkrieg und Kriegsende; sieben Beiträge (Hamburg: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2000), 97.
136 Tami Davis Biddle, “Wartime Reactions,” in Addison and Crang, Firestorm, 107–10.
137 Ibid., 113.
138 CamUL, Boyle papers, Add 9429/1B, Harris to Boyle, June 13, 1979.
139 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, HQ Bomber Command, “Bomber Command’s ‘Battle of the Ruhr,’” March 24, 1945.
140 Brereton Greenhous, Stephen Harris, William Johnston, and William Rawling, The Crucible of War, 1939–1945: The Official History of the Canadian Air Force, vol. 3 (Toronto: Toronto University Press/Department of National Defence, 1994), 862.
141 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 6, Portal to Churchill, April 20, 1945; Hunter, Winston and Archie, 414, Churchill to Sinclair, April 19, 1945.
142 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:183–84, Strategic Directive no. 4, April 16, 1945.
143 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, 582–84.
144 Mets, Master of Airpower, 283–84.
145 TNA, HO 196/30, RE8 report, May 25, 1945.
146 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Spaatz to commanding generals, 8th, 9th, and 15th air forces, August 24, 1944.
147 Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper&Row, 1949), 490–91; USSBS, “Over-all Report (European War),” Washington, DC, September 30, 1945, vol. 2, ix; Gordon Daniels, ed., A Guide to the Reports of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (London: Royal Historical Society, 1981), xix–xxii; Gian Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing? Lessons Learned from World War II to Kosovo (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 33–54.
148 NC, Cherwell papers, F247, Churchill to Sinclair, January 3, 1945; on the problems surrounding the survey see Sebastian Cox, ed., The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945: The Official Report of the British Bombing Survey Unit (London: Frank Cass, 1998), xvii–xix.
149 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/1, BBSU Advisory Committee, minutes of 1st meeting, June 6, 1945; note for Air Ministry and SHAEF, June 13, 1945; Cox, Strategic Air War Against Germany, xx–xxi.
150 TNA, AIR 14/1779, minutes of meeting, February 27, 1945, on the future of the RE8 Department. The personnel were absorbed into the Air Ministry establishment on March 1, 1945.
151 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, “Proposals for the Establishment of a British Strategic Bombing Unit,” May 30, 1945, 1–3.
152 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/65, ADI (K) Report, “Factors in Germany’s Defeat,” May 17, 1945.
153 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 68, HQ USSTAF, “The Allied Air Offensive Against Germany and Principal Criticisms by the Enemy Leaders,” 4–5, 6.
154 Ibid., Table D, Ninth Air Force interrogation of Hermann Göring, June 1, 1945; interrogation of Milch, May 23, 1945; Table E, SHAEF interrogation of Speer, June 3, 1945; Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing?, 69.
155 Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing?, 7; LC, Spaatz papers, Box 134, “Interrogation of Reich Marshal Hermann Goering,” May 10, 1945, 5.
156 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 134, USSBS Interrogation no. 8, Lt. Gen. Karl Koller, May 23–24, 1945, 6–7.
157 USSBS, Over-all Report (European Theatre), 25–26, 37–38, 73–74; Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing?, 55–56. For a convincing case on the diminishing returns from bombing, see the recent economic analysis by Jurgen Brauer and Hubert van Tuyll, Castles, Battles, and Bombs: How Economics Explains Military History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 211–13, 217–19, 235–36.
158 Cox, Strategic Air War Against Germany, 129–34.
159 Ibid., 154.
160 Ibid., 94–97.
161 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Bufton to Portal, January 3, 1945. The report was passed on to Harris by Portal, but with the reference to Hamburg deleted.
162 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3, Exercise Thunderbolt, précis no. 8, “The Course of the Combined Bomber Offensive from January 1943 to April 1944,” 2; précis no. 18, “The Course of the Combined Strategic Bomber Offensive from 14 April 1944 to the End of the European War,” 3–4.
163 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/2, précis of lecture by Wing Commander G. A. Carey Foster, “On the Effects of Strategic Bombing on Germany’s Capacity to Make War.”
164 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3, Zuckerman, rough notes on Exercise Thunderbolt, August 13–16, 1947.
165 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/103, Nicholas Kaldor typescript, “The Nature of Strategic Bombing,” 4–6; Kaldor typescript, “Capacity of German Industry,” 2–5.
166 Nicholas Kaldor, “The German War Economy,” Review of Economic Statistics 13 (1946): 20ff.; see Richard Overy, “Mobilisation for Total War in Germany, 1939–1941,” English Historical Review 103 (1988): 613–39, and more recently Adam Tooze, “No Room for Miracles: German Industrial Output in World War II Reassessed,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 31 (2005): 439–64.
167 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:469–70, 494, App. 49 (iii), 49 (xxii).
168 Richard Overy, “The Economy of the German ‘New Order,’” in Johannes ten Cate, Gerhard Otto, and Richard Overy, eds., Die “Neuordnung” Europas: NS-Wirtschaftspolitik in den besetzten Gebieten (Berlin: Metropol Verlag, 1997), 14–26; on financial contributions, Willi Boelcke, Die Kosten von Hitlers Krieg (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1985), 98, 110. On labor, Ulrich Herbert, ed., Europa und der “Reichseinsatz: Ausländische Zivilarbeiter, Kriegsgefangene und KZ-Häftlinge in Deutschland, 1938–1945 (Essen: Klartext, 1991), 7–8. The totals were: POWs 1,930,087; forced laborers, 5,976,673. On booty policy and its results, Götz Aly, Hitlers Volksstaat: Raub, Rassenkrieg und Nationaler Sozialismus (Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer Verlag, 2005), 59ff.
169 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/103, “Nature of Strategic Bombing,” 6–7.
170 LC, Spaatz papers, J. K. Galbraith, “Preliminary Appraisal of Achievement of Strategic Bombing of Germany,” 2.
171 TNA, AIR 48/33, USSBS, Civilian Defense Report no. 4, Hamburg Field Report, vol. 1, 83.
172 Details from BA-B, R 3102/10031, Reichsministerium für Rüstung-und Kriegswirtschaft, “Vorläufige Zusammenstellung des Arbeiterstunden ausfalls durch Feindeinwirkung,” Tables 1 and 4, January 4, 1945.
173 Albert Speer, Spandau: The Secret Diaries (London: Collins, 1976), 360, entry for April 12, 1959: “No-one has yet seen that this was the greatest lost battle on the German side.”
174 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, note by Bufton, “Part Played by the RAF in the Crossing of the Rhine—24 March 1945.”
175 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3, Portal to Tedder, September 10, 1947.
176 British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 274, 302; Boog, “Strategischer Luftkrieg,” 287.
177 Cox, Strategic Air War Against Germany, 97; British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 274, 298; Friedhelm Golücke, Schweinfurt und der strategische Luftkrieg, 1943 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1980), 153–59; IWM, MD, vol. 53, 877, German Flak Office to Milch, August 12, 1943.
178 John K. Galbraith, A Life in Our Times: Memoirs (London: Andre Deutsch, 1981), 240.
179 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/2, Carey Lecture, 8; TNA, AIR 10/3866, Report of the British Bombing Survey Unit, 38; NARA, RG 107, Box 138, Statistical Control Division, “An Estimate of Costs of AAF Strategic Air Forces Fighting Germany,” April 12, 1945. Since this last figure covered the period up to December 31, 1944, it is likely that the final figure was between 12 and 13 percent.
180 TNA, AIR 20/2025, Casualties of RAF, Dominion and Allied Personnel at RAF Posting Disposal, May 31, 1947.
181 Greenhous et al., Crucible of War, 864.
182 TNA, AIR 22/203, War Room Manual of Bomber Command Operations 1939–1945, 9.
183 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, App. 4, App. 9.
Chapter 4. The Logic of Total War: German Society Under the Bombs
1 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 134, “Interrogation of Hermann Goering, Augsburg, 10 May 1945”; Hopper to Spaatz, May 12, 1945.
2 Ibid., Box 203, “Jeeping the Targets in a Country That Was,” April 17–22, 1945, 1, 19.
3 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/51, Bufton to Brig. Gen. F. Maxwell, May 17, 1945.
4 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/1, “Notes on the ‘pocket,’” April 28, 1945, 4–5, 7, 10.
5 Bernd Lemke, Luftschutz in Grossbritannien und Deutschland, 1923 bis 1939 (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2005), 255.
6 BA-B, R 1501/1513, RLM, “Grundsätze für die Führung des Luftschutzes,” February 1942, 5.
7 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Göring, Goebbels, and Wilhelm Frick (interior minister) to all RVK, May 7, 1942, “Aufgabenverteilung bei Luftschutzmassnahmen.”
8 Lemke, Luftschutz, 258–61.
9 Jörn Brinkhus, “Ziviler Luftschutz im ‘Dritten Reich’—Wandel seiner Spitzenorganisation,” in Dietmar Süss, ed., Deutschland im Luftkrieg: Geschichte und Erinnerung (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2007), 27–30.
10 Andreas Linhardt, Feuerwehr im Luftschutz, 1926–1945: Die Umstruktierung des öffentlichen Feuerlöschwesens in Deutschland unter Gesichtspunkten des zivilen Luftschutzes (Brunswick: VFDB, 2002), 37–38, 85–87, 114–20, 134–39, 204–5.
11 British Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee Report no. 18, “Fire Fighting Equipment and Methods in Germany during the Period 1939–1945” (London, 1949), 7–9.
12 Lemke, Luftschutz, 254–56.
13 BA-B, R 1501/823, Luftschutzgesetz, 7 Durchführungsverordnung, August 31, 1943, 519–20.
14 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS, “Civilian Defense Division: Final Report, 26 Oct 1945,” 117–26.
15 BA-MA, RL 41/3, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, May 21, 1941, 1. Leitsätze für Luftschutz-Warte.
16 BA-B, R 1501/1513, RLM, “Grundsätze für die Führung des Luftschutzes,” February 1942, 6.
17 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Rundschreiben, October 2, 1942, “Führungsaufgaben”; October 16, 1942, “Besonderer Einsatz von Amtsträgerinnen bei Terrorangriffen.”
18 Linhardt, Feuerwehr im Luftschutz, 108–9.
19 BA-B, R 1501/1516, Deutsche Gemeindetag to Göring, November 3, 1938; Interior Ministry to all Reich provinces, April 21, 1939.
20 Ibid., Air Ministry to all Regional Air Commands, November 1941.
21 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, May 8, 1940, July 2 and 10, 1940, 1.
22 Lemke, Luftschutz, 328–29.
23 BA-B, R 1510/1515, Interior Ministry to Landesregierungen, Oberpräsidenten, January 6, 1940, May 17, 1940, September 26, 1940.
24 TNA, AIR 20/7287, Home Office, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg on the Heavy Raids on Hamburg July/August 1943,” December 1, 1943, 3–4.
25 Wilfried Beer, Kriegsalltag an der Heimatfront: Allierten Luftkrieg und deutsche Gegenmassnahmen zur Abwehr und Schadensbegrenzung dargestellt für den Raum Münster (Bremen: H. M. Hauschild, 1990), 108–10.
26 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, July 10, 1940; BA-B, R 1501/823, Luftschutzgesetz: Zehnte Durchführungsverordnung: Luftschutzmässiges Verhalten.
27 Ibid., 523; BA-MA, RL 41/6, RLB-Präsidium, material for the press, August 10, 1943, 1. On shelter rules see Dietmar Süss, “Wartime Societies and Shelter Politics in National Socialist Germany and Britain,” in Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, and Richard Overy, eds., Bombing, States and Peoples in Western Europe, 1940–1945 (London: Continuum, 2011), 29–31.
28 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS, “Civilian Defense Division: Final Report,” 141–47; Marc Wiggam, “The Blackout and the Idea of Community in Britain and Germany,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 50–51.
29 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, February 6 and 14, 1940, March 12, 1940; January 8 and 9, 1943.
30 BA-B, R 1501/1515, Interior Ministry to all RVK, October 27, 1939.
31 Wilbur Zelinsky and Leszek A. Kosinski, The Emergency Evacuation of Cities (Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1991), 160–64; on Hitler see BA-B, R 1501/1515, Interior Ministry minute, October 8, 1940. On the program of child evacuation see Gerhard Kock, “Der Führer sorgt für unsere Kinder . . .”: Die Kinderlandverschickung im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1997), 69, 122, 351; Julia Torrie, “For Their Own Good”: Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939–1945 (New York: Berghahn, 2010), 52–53. On the experience of Cologne see Martin Rüther, “Die Erweiterte Kinderlandverschickung in Köln, Bonn und Umgebung,” in Martin Rüther, ed., “Zu Hause könnten sie es nicht schöner haben!”: Kinderlandverschickung aus Köln und Umgebung, 1941–1945 (Cologne: Emons Verlag, 2000), 69–71, 75.
32 Anton Hoch, “Der Luftangriff auf Freiburg 1940,” Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte 4 (1956): 115–44.
33 Beer, Kriegsalltag an der Heimatfront, 107.
34 William Shirer, Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1941), 273–74, 364; Harry Flannery, Assignment to Berlin (London: Michael Joseph, 1942), 40–41.
35 Heinz Boberach, ed., Meldungen aus dem Reich: Die geheimen Lageberichte des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS, 1938–1945 (Herrsching: Pawlak Verlag, 1984), 4:1140–41, Special Report, May 16, 1940; 1152, Special Report, May 20, 1940.
36 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, May 6 and 22, 1940, July 10, 1940.
37 Ibid., September 11, 1940, November 6, 1940.
38 BA-B, R 1501/823, Interior Ministry to all Statthalter, RVK, Oberpräsidenten, May 16, 1940.
39 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS, “Civilian Defense Division: Final Report,” 33–36.
40 Wolfgang Werner, “Bleib übrig”: Deutsche Arbeiter in der nationalsozialistischen Kriegswirtschaft (Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1983), 34–41.
41 BA-B, R 1501/1071, Labor Ministry, “Änderung über Erstattung von Lohnausfällen,” October 22, 1940; Ministry of Labor to all Provincial Labor Offices, February 8, 1941; Ministry of Labor Decree, November 19, 1941.
42 BA-B, NS 18/1060, Propaganda Ministry to Party Chancellery, October 9, 1941; “Bericht wegen Lohnausfall bei Luftalarm und Fliegerschäden,” October 23, 1941, 1–3.
43 BA-B, R 1501/1071, General Plenipotentiary for Labor to all Gau Labor Offices, November 15, 1943; Reichsministerialblatt, vol. 72, February 18, 1944, “Erlass über Massnahmen des Arbeitsrechts und Arbeitseinsatzes bei Fliegeralarm und Fliegerschäden.”
44 BA-MA, RL 41/3, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, March 7 and 26, 1941, 1–2.
45 Ibid., August 27, 1941, 3–4.
46 BA-B, R 1501/823, Interior Ministry to the Gemeindetag, October 2, 1940.
47 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Party Chancellery to Tiessler (Propaganda Ministry), April 27, 1942.
48 Martin Dean, Robbing the Jews: The Confiscation of Jewish Property in the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 223–24, 239.
49 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, July 6 and 31, 1940, 2.
50 Jill Stephenson, “Bombing and Rural Society in Württemberg,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 98–100; Edward Westermann, “Hitting the Mark but Missing the Target: Luftwaffe Deception Operations, 1939–1945,” War in History 10 (2003): 208–13; BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Rundschreiben, January 11, 1943.
51 BA-B, R 1501/823, “7th Durchführungsverordnung (Beschaffung von Selbstschutzgerät),” August 31, 1943.
52 BA-MA, RL 41/2, RLB, Luftschutz-Berichte, September 6 and 25, 1940, December 4, 1940.
53 TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 2; Ursula Büttner, “‘Gomorrha’ und die Folgen der Bombenkrieg,” in Hamburg Forschungsstelle für Zeitgeschichte, Hamburg im “Dritten Reich” (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2005), 616.
54 Beer, Kriegsalltag an der Heimatfront, 123–25.
55 TsAMO, f.500, o.12452, d.139, minutes of meeting in the Air Ministry, October 17, 1940, 2–3.
56 Michael Foedrowitz, Bunkerwelten: Luftschutzanlagen in Norddeutschland (Berlin: Links Verlag, 1998), 9–12; Ralf Blank, “Kriegsalltag und Luftkrieg an der Heimatfront,” in Jörg Echternkamp, ed., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Band 9, erster Halbband: Die Deutsche Kriegsgesellschaft (Stuttgart: DVA, 2004),” 395–96.
57 BA-MA, RL 41/3, Luftschutz-Berichte, November 7 and 19, 1941, 2.
58 Hans Hesse and Elke Purpus, “Vom Luftschutzraum zum Denkmalschutz—Bunker in Köln,” in Inge Marszolek and Marc Buggeln, eds., Bunker: Kriegsort, Zuflucht, Erinnerungsraum (Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 2008), 66–68.
59 Blank, “Kriegsalltag und Luftkrieg,” 396–97; Olaf Groehler, Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1990), 245–47.
60 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 245–46; Richard Evans, The Third Reich at War (London: Allen Lane, 2008), 454–55.
61 Howard K. Smith, Last Train from Berlin (London: Cresset, 1942), 116; Süss, “Wartime Societies,” 25–26; Blank, “Kriegsalltag und Luftkrieg,” 403–5. See too Roger Moorhouse, Berlin at War: Life and Death in Hitler’s Capital, 1939–1945 (London: Bodley Head, 2010), 310–11.
62 Details in Michael Foedrowitz, Flak-Towers (Berlin: Berlin Underworlds Association, 2008), 3–4, 11–13, 17–18.
63 Ursula Büttner, “‘Gomorrha,’” 614–15; Beer, Kriegsalltag an der Heimatfront, 19–21.
64 Figures calculated from BA-B, NS 18/1063, Partei-Kanzlei, “Angaben über die Verluste nach Fliegerangriffen,” October 2, 1942.
65 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Landesgruppe Hesse-Rheinland, Rundschreiben, October 2, 1942; Merkblatt über Aussehen, Wirkung und Bekämpfung Brandabwurfmitteln.
66 BA-MA, RL 41/3, Luftschutz-Berichte, April 7 and 23, 1941, 2–3.
67 TsAMO, f.500, 393761c/34, RLM, Luftschutz-Arbeitsstab, “Anordnung auf Grund der letzten Erfahrungen aus Luftangriffen,” February 19, 1941, 1–3, 4–5; 12452/139, minutes of meeting in the Air Ministry, October 10, 1940, 7.
68 TsAMO, f.500, 12452/139, OKW, “Weisungen für den Einsatz der Luftschutzkräfte und die Verwendung der Wehrmacht,” March 7, 1941.
69 BA-B, R 1501/823, Interior Ministry to all RVK, Statthalter, May 2, 1941; Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 129–30.
70 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 264–66. On the NSV see Armin Nolzen, “‘Sozialismus der Tat?’ Die Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt (NSV) und der allierte Luftkrieg gegen das Deutsche Reich,” in Süss, Deutschland im Luftkrieg, 58–59.
71 BA-MA, RL 41/3, Luftschutz-Berichte, July 16, 1941.
72 BA-B, NS 18/1058, action report to NSDAP Reichsleitung, “Angriff auf Lübeck,” April 6, 1942.
73 Ibid., Gauleiter Hildebrandt to Party Reichsleitung, April 26, 1942; Gauleitung Mecklenburg to Goebbels, Bormann, April 27, 1942 (1).
74 Ibid., Gauleitung Mecklenburg to Goebbels, Bormann, April 27, 1942 (2); April 28, 1942; April 29, 1942.
75 Ibid., Gauleiter Hildebrandt to Führer HQ, May 2, 1942.
76 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Goebbels to all Gauleiter, Reichsstatthalter, RVK, April 28, 1942; see too Dietmar Süss, “Steuerung durch Information? Joseph Goebbels als ‘Kommissar der Heimatfront’ und die Reichsinspektion für den zivilen Luftschutz,” in Rüdiger Hachtmann and Winfried Süss, eds., Hitlers Kommissare: Sondergewalten in der nationalsozialistischen Diktatur (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2006), 185–87; Brinkhus, “Ziviler Luftschutz,” 34–35.
77 Nolzen, “‘Sozialismus der Tat?,’” 60–62.
78 Cited in Eleanor Hancock, The National Socialist Leadership and Total War, 1941–45 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1991), 103.
79 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Circular to all Reich defense commissars, “Aufgabenverteilung bei Luftschutzmassnahmen,” May 7, 1942; note for Goebbels, May 7, 1942.
80 BA-B, R 1501/3791, Arbeitsstab L5 (Air Ministry), “Abgrenzung von Befehlsbefugnissen,” December 17, 1942; Göring Directive, December 17, 1942, 3.
81 Süss, “Steuerung durch Information?,” 188–91; Brinkhus, “Ziviler Luftschutz,” 34–36.
82 BA-B, R 1501/823, RVK Hamburg, “Richtlinien für die Tätigkeit eines Einsatzstabes bei katastrophen Luftangriffen,” April 9, 1942; Interior Ministry to all Reich authorities, May 6, 1942.
83 BA-B, R 3101/31135, “Polizeiliche Anordnung über die Luftschutzdienstpflicht,” August 27, 1943; BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Rundschreiben, October 2, 1942, based on a Göring Decree, August 12, 1942.
84 Dieter Busch, Der Luftkrieg im Raum Mainz während des Zweiten Weltkrieges, 1939–1945 (Mainz: Hase & Koehler, 1988), 67.
85 BA-B, R 13/XVII/21, draft Führer Decree, August 1943; Armaments Ministry, “Durchführungsanordnung zum Führererlass,” August 23, 1943.
86 BA-B, R 1501/938, Verwaltungsbezirk Schöneberg, “Übersicht über die Sammelunterkünfte für Obdachlose,” August 1942.
87 Ibid., Interior Ministry memorandum, “Besprechung im Rathaus Schöneberg,” April 9, 1943, 1–3.
88 BA-B, R 1501/823, Interior Ministry, May 6, 1942, “Planmässige Vorbereitung der Hilfsmassnahmen,” 2–4.
89 BA-B, R 1501/904, Interior Ministry, “Richtlinien für die Durchführung von Bauarbeiten zur Beseitigung von Fliegerschäden,” April 12, 1943.
90 BA-B, R 1501/938, memorandum on activity of Baugruppe Pfeil, March 9, 1943.
91 BA-B, R 1501/949, Stadt der Reichsparteistadt Nürnberg, “Übersicht über die Fliegerschäden aus dem Luftangriffen vom 28/29.8.1942 bis 8/9.3 1943,” May 3, 1943.
92 Ibid., Finance Ministry, Justice Ministry, minutes of meeting, “Ausgaben für Kriegssachschäden,” February 17, 1944, 1.
93 Stephan Glienke, “The Allied Air War and German Society,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 186–88.
94 BA-B, NS 18/1062, Party Chancellery, “Vorlage: Material und Arbeitskräfte für die Beseitigung von Fliegerschäden” [n.d.].
95 BA-B, R 1501/938, ration cards for bomb victims, Berlin, March 1943; report from Wirtschaftsamt Schöneberg, April 9, 1943, 1–6.
96 RAFM, Harris papers, H51, Summary of the Foreign Press, August 29, 1942, Die Weltwoche, June 12, 1942.
97 BA-B, R 1501/938, memorandum from Bezirksamt Schöneberg on the work of the Quartieramt (accommodation office), April 9, 1943, 1–2, 3–4.
98 BA-B, R 1501/949, Stadt der Reichsparteitage Nürnberg, May 3, 1943.
99 Ibid., minutes of meeting, “Ausgaben für Kriegssachschäden,” February 17, 1944, 2.
100 TNA, AIR 48/33, USSBS, Civilian Defense Report no. 4: Hamburg Field Report, vol. 1, 2, 30.
101 TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report of the Police President of Hamburg,” 2–12; AIR 48/33, USSBS, Hamburg Field Report, vol. 1, 45.
102 BA-B, NS 18/573, Luftkriegsmeldedienst, Luftangriffe, May 14–17, 1943, June 22–23, 1943; NS 18/1060, Luftangriffe auf deutsche Reichsgebiet, May 27–28, 1943.
103 Hamburg und Dresden im Dritten Reich: Bombenkrieg und Kriegsende; Sieben Beiträge (Hamburg: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2000), 31–33; BA-B, NS 18/1060, Luftkriegsmeldedienst, Luftangriffe auf deutsche Reichsgebiet, July 29–30, 1943.
104 Ursula Büttner, “‘Gomorrha,’” 47, 69.
105 TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 22; BA-B, R 1501/3791, report from Reich Health Leader (Leonardo Conti), “Ärztliche Erfahrungen im Luftschutz,” March 27, 1944.
106 BA-B, R 1501/949, memorandum by Goebbels, “Reichsinspektion zur Durchführung ziviler Luftkriegsmassnahmen,” January 28, 1944, 3.
107 TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 23.
108 TNA, AIR 48/33, Hamburg Field Report, vol. 1, 36. The fire service also calculated injury to a further 46,252; AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 17, 75.
109 Hans Nossack, The End: Hamburg, 1943 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 17–18, 44 (originally published in Germany in 1948 as Der Untergang).
110 Gretl Büttner, “Zwischen Leben und Tod,” in Volker Hage, ed., Hamburg 1943: Literarische Zeugnisse zum Feuersturm (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Verlag, 2003), 30–31.
111 BA-B, R 1501/3791, Conti to the ILA, August 5, 1943; Dr. Illig (Hamburg) to Conti, August 5, 1943; City Medical Council (Hannover) to Conti, August 13, 1943.
112 BA-B, R 1501/37723, Luftschutz-Chemiker, Hamburg to Interior Ministry, November 5, 1943, encl. report “Trinkwasser-Notversorgung.”
113 BA-B, R 1501/3791, RVK, Hamburg to Conti, August 17, 1943, 2–3; minute by Dr. Cropp, Interior Ministry, August 3, 1943.
114 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS, Civilian Defense Division: Final Report, 72.
115 Hans Brunswig, Feuersturm über Hamburg: Die Luftangriffe auf Hamburg im 2. Weltkrieg und ihre Folgen (Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, 1985), 300–301.
116 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 14:5562–63, report for August 2, 1943. Göring visit in Brunswig, Feuersturm, 296.
117 Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970), 284.
118 BA-B, R 13/XVII/21, Armaments Ministry, “Durchführungsanordnung zum Führererlass,” August 23, 1943.
119 BA-B, R 1501/949, “Bericht über die Dienstreise des Reichsrichter Dr. Danckelmann nach Hamburg, 20 bis 22 Juni 1944,” 3–5.
120 Fred Iklé, The Social Impact of Bomb Destruction (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), 67–68.
121 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Rundschreiben, July 1943.
122 TsAMO, f.500, o.393761c, d.34, LS-Arbeitsstab, Erfahrungsbericht, October 6, 1943, 4; no. 22, January 20, 1944, 1; no. 23, March 5, 1944, 4.
123 Ibid., no. 20, December 4, 1943, 1.
124 TNA, AIR 20/7287, “Secret Report by the Police President of Hamburg,” 87–90.
125 BA-MA, RL 41/6, RLB, Presse-Material, November 2, 1943; TsAMO, f.500, o.393761c, d.34, LS-Arbeitsstab, Erfahrungsbericht no. 18, 7.
126 TsAMO, f.500, o.393761c, d.34, Erfahrungsbericht no. 17, September 23, 1943, 9; BA-MA, RL 41/6, RLB, Presse-Material, August 10, 1943, 1; November 2, 1943, 1.
127 Heinz Pettenberg, Starke Verbände im Anflug auf Köln, ed. Hella Reuter-Pettenberg (Cologne: J. P. Bachem Verlag, 1981), 90–91, entry for May 31, 1942.
128 Details from Linhardt, Feuerwehr im Luftschutz, 171–72, 173, 178, 180–82; Hans Rumpf, The Bombing of Germany (London: White Lion, 1957).
129 Kock, “Der Führer sorgt für unsere Kinder,” 139–43; Katja Klee, Im “Luftschutzkeller des Reiches”: Evakuierte in Bayern, 1939–1953 (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1999), 165–67.
130 BA-B, R 1501/823, Interior Ministry to all local authorities, July 27, 1942.
131 BA-B, R 1501/1515, Interior Ministry to provincial governments, February 2, 1943; Kock, “Der Führer sorgt für unsere Kinder,” 141.
132 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 266–67.
133 BA-B, R 1501/3791, State Secretary Ganzenmüller, Transport Ministry, “Transport Questions in Evacuation of Air War Regions,” June 1943, 1; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 282; Klee, Im “Luftschutzkeller des Reiches,” 171.
134 BA-B, R 3102/10044, Statistical Office, “Stand der Umquartierung aus luftgefährdeten Gebieten,” September 15, 1943.
135 BA-B, NS 18/1062, minute for Tiessler, Party Chancellery, “Attitude of the Evacuees in the Reception Areas,” May 11, 1943.
136 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Propaganda Ministry, Inter-Ministerial Committee to all Gauleiter, August 19, 1943, 1, 4.
137 Jill Stephenson, Hitler’s Home Front: Württemberg Under the Nazis (London: Continuum, 2006), 299–301, 306–11; Glienke, “Allied Air War,” 196–98; Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 100–106. On tensions between evacuees and local populations see Nicholas Stargardt, Witnesses of War: Children’s Lives Under the Nazis (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005), 256–59.
138 BA-B, R 1501/3791, Mayor of Berlin to Reichsgesundheitsführer, Conti, August 21, 1943; RVK, Hamburg to Conti, August 17, 1943, “Verteilung von Ärzten.”
139 Ibid., NS DAP, Hauptamt für Volkswohlfahrt to Conti, July 13, 1943.
140 BA-B, R 1501/3809, Conti papers, “Gedanken zur ärtzlichen Planwirtschaft,” October 12, 1943; R 1501/3791, Meeting of the Inter-Ministerial Committee, July 21, 1943; Reich Health Leader to Oberpräsident Münster, July 30, 1943.
141 BA-B, R 1501/3791, memorandum to Reich Health Leader, June 29, 1943; Generalreferent für Luftkriegsschäden to Speer, June 29, 1943; RVK, Westfalen-Nord to Conti, July 22, 1943.
142 Ibid., President, German Red Cross, to all provincial offices, July 2, 1943; Conti to all RVK, “Gesundheitliche Versorgung der Zivilbevölkerung bei Luftgrossangriffen,” July 5, 1943.
143 BA-B, NS 18/1062, Karl Brandt, Führer HQ, circular report, October 8, 1941. Hitler’s decision was taken on August 24.
144 BA-B, R 1501/3809, Brandt to the Interior Ministry (Conti), Bormann, and Hans Lammers, June 24, 1943; Brandt to Lammers, June 30, 1943; Brandt memorandum, “Aufstellung der im Rahmen des Führerauftrages durch zuführenden Massnahmen.”
145 Süss, “Wartime Societies and Shelter Politics,” 36–38; Dietmar Süss, Tod aus der Luft: Kriegsgesellschaft und Luftkrieg in Deutschland und England (Munich: Siedler Verlag, 2011), 368–72. See too Peter Heinl, “Invisible Psychological Ruins: Unconscious Long-Term War Trauma,” workshop paper, Reading University, March 13, 2009. Heinl was able to explain serious psychiatric and psychosomatic conditions among a cohort of elderly Germans by exposing their childhood experiences under bombing.
146 BA-B, NS 18/1063, Notice for Tiessler, March 17, 1943.
147 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 13:4983, March 22, 1943.
148 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, measures to be taken as a result of recent air raids, September 1943.
149 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Propaganda Ministry, Vorlage für den Herrn Minister, September 28, 1942. See too Stargardt, Witnesses of War, 253–54.
150 BA-B, NS 18/1333, Vorlage für den Herrn Minister, July 3, 1943, “Vermeidung von Gerüchten über die Bombardierung von Vulkanen.”
151 Waltraud Süssmilch, Im Bunker: Eine Überlebende berichtet vom Bombenkrieg in Berlin (Berlin: Ullstein, 2004), 7.
152 Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen, Diary of a Man in Despair (London: Audiogrove, 1995), 188–89.
153 BA-B, NS 18/1058, conference with Goebbels, May 20, 1943, report by Mayor Ellgering; Michael Balfour, Propaganda in War, 1939–1945 (London: Routledge, 1979), 341.
154 Elke Fröhlich, ed., Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels. Teil II, Band 7: Januar–März 1943 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), 540.
155 Ralf Reuth, Goebbels: The Life of Joseph Goebbels, the Mephistophelean Genius of Nazi Propaganda (London: Constable, 1993), 315–16; Hancock, National Socialist Leadership, 69–73; Daniel Uziel, The Propaganda Warriors: The Wehrmacht and the Consolidation of the German Home Front (Bern: Peter Lang, 2008), 303–4.
156 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 13:5217, May 6, 1943.
157 Uziel, Propaganda Warriors, 318–19; BA-B, NS 18/1333, Propaganda Ministry, Vorlage für den Herrn Minister, September 28, 1942; Bormann, Party Chancellery, “Führungshinweis Nr. 7,” November 4, 1943.
158 BA-B, NS 18/1063, NSDAP, Propagandaleitung, notice, March 17, 1943.
159 Ralf Blank, “The Battle of the Ruhr, 1943: Aerial Warfare Against an Industrial Region,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 45.
160 Uziel, Propaganda Warriors, 316–17; Balfour, Propaganda in War, 343–44.
161 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 13:5187, April 29, 1943; 14:5699, September 2, 1943.
162 Uziel, Propaganda Warriors, 319–21; Blank, “Aerial Warfare Against an Industrial Region,” 45–46.
163 Cited in Jeffrey Herf, The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the Holocaust (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 215–16, 230; see too Balfour, Propaganda in War, 343–44.
164 BA-B, NS 18/1063, Propaganda-Kompanie Rundspruch, March 13, 1942, “Todesanzeigen für Opfer bei Fliegerangriffen”; Reichspropagandamt Weser-Ems to Hans Fritzsche, Propaganda Ministry, February 23, 1942.
165 Ibid., OKW to Reichspropagandaleitung, May 18, 1942; Goebbels notice, May 7, 1943. See also Nicole Kramer, “‘Kämpfende Mutter’ und ‘gefallene Heldinnen’—Frauen im Luftschutz,” in Süss, Deutschland im Luftkrieg, 94–96.
166 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 14:5698, September 2, 1943. For a full account of the Witten incident see Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 97–105.
167 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 41–42.
168 Nossack, The End, 33; Rumpf, Bombing of Germany, 202.
169 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 14:5620, August 16, 1943.
170 Ibid., 14:5716, September 6, 1943; see also Glienke, “Allied Air War,” 191–92.
171 Hester Vaizey, Surviving Hitler’s War: Family Life in Germany, 1939–48 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010), 65.
172 Nossack, The End, 31–32.
173 Ibid., 32.
174 Adam Tooze, “No Room for Miracles: German Industrial Output in World War II Reassessed,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 31 (2005): 439–64; Lutz Budrass, Jonas Scherner, and Jochen Streb, “Fixed-Price Contracts, Learning, and Outsourcing: Explaining the Continuous Growth of Output and Labour Productivity in the German Aircraft Industry During the Second World War,” Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 63 (2010): 107–36.
175 IWM, S363, Saur papers, Kartei des Technischen Amtes, 17, speech by the Führer, September 23, 1944.
176 BA-B, R 7/2249, Bezirksgruppe Nordwest, Wirtschaftsgruppe Eisenschaffende Industrie, “Zusammenhänge und Lage der nordwestlichen Eisenindustrie,” August 17, 1945.
177 IWM, MD, vol. 13, minutes of GL meeting, April 27, 1942.
178 Ibid., vol. 56, letter from Technical Office to Milch, October 22, 1942, “Verlegung luftgefährdeter Betriebe.”
179 Westermann, “Hitting the Mark,” 213–14; Werner Wolf, Luftangriffe auf die deutsche Industrie, 1942–1945 (Munich: Universitas, 1985), 129–30.
180 Smith, Last Train from Berlin, 117–18.
181 Westermann, “Hitting the Mark,” 214–16.
182 Richard Overy, “Guns or Butter? Living Standards, Finance and Labour in Germany, 1939–1942,” in War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 278, 293–95.
183 Rolf-Dieter Müller, “Das Scheitern der wirtschaftlichen ‘Blitzkriegsstrategie,’” in Horst Boog et al., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg. Band 4: Der Angriff auf die Sowjetunion (Stuttgart: DVA, 1983), 936–49, 1022–29; Rolf-Dieter Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik im totalen Krieg, 1942–1945,” in Bernhard Kroener, Rolf-Dieter Müller, and Hans Umbreit, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg. Band 5/2: Organisation und Mobilisierung des deutschen Machtbereichs, 1942–1944/45 (Stuttgart: DVA, 1999), 275–317.
184 CIOS Report, Item 21, Metallurgy, “German Iron and Steel Industry: Ruhr and Salzgitter Areas,” June 1945, 11, 17; USSBS Report 69, Fr. Krupp AG: Friedrich Alfred Hütte. Heavy Industry Plant Report No. 2 (Washington, DC, September 12, 1945), 1.
185 USSBS, Special Paper 3, The Effects of Strategic Bombing upon the Operations of the Hermann Göring Works During World War II (Washington, DC, 1946), 60; Control Office for Germany and Austria, “German Industrial Complexes: The Hermann Göring Complex,” June 1946, 42.
186 Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik,” 620, 630–31, 632, 642. The argument developed by Adam Tooze, Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 598–600, that bombing brought arms production to a halt, remains unconvincing given the substantial increases in military output throughout the period from March 1943 to summer 1944.
187 IWM, Box S368, Report 54, interrogation of Albert Speer, July 13, 1945, 3–4, 7–8. Air supply figures calculated from BA-MA, RL 3/38, GL-Office, “Überblick über den Rüstungsstand der Luftwaffe: 1 Januar 1945”; RL 3/36, GL-Technical Office Report, “Über die Gründe der erhöhten Lieferungen im Rahmen des Luftwaffenprogrammes von März bis Juni 1944.” On the overall effect of losses see Müller, “Albert Speer und die Rüstungspolitik,” 648–58.
188 BA-B, R 13/XVII/21, draft Führer Decree, August 1943, on the repair of “damage regions”; Ministry of Armaments and Munitions, “Durchführungsanordnung zum Führererlass,” August 23, 1943.
189 TsAMO, f.500, o.393761c, d.34, LS-Arbeitsstab, Erfahrungsbericht, November 15, 1943, 12.
190 BA-B, R 3101/31135, Economics Ministry to all Reich authorities, October 1, 1943.
191 Wolf, Luftangriffe auf die deutsche Industrie, 69–74.
192 BA-B, R 1501/1071, Four Year Plan, Price Commissar Decree, September 4, 1942.
193 Ibid., Plenipotentiary for Labor Supply (Fritz Sauckel) to Reich Trustees of Labor, July 9, 1943.
194 IWM, Box S368, Report 85, interrogation of Dr. Theodor Hupfauer (Ministry of War Production, chief of labor supply), September 10, 1945, 3; Hans Pohl and Wilhelm Treue, Die Daimler-Benz AG in den Jahren 1933 bis 1945 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1986), 173–74, 179.
195 IWM, Box S368, Report 85, Hupfauer interrogation, 8, 14.
196 TsAMO, f.500, o.393761c, d.34, LS-Arbeitsstab, Erfahrungsbericht, July 1, 1944, 1–2.
197 See the intelligence report from interrogation of the former Italian consul general in Frankfurt, TNA, PREM 3/193/6A, HQ Algiers to War Office, October 30, 1943: “Workers particularly were depressed for they now had a reasonable standard of living which they knew would disappear if war lost.” Also LC, Spaatz papers, Box 203, Propaganda Research Section, “Morale in Hamburg,” January 29, 1942, based on conversations with Hamburg workers from a Belgian source who identified three principal fears: fear of unemployment and starvation; fear of retribution by the Allies; and fear of the dismemberment of Germany.
198 Martin Moll, ed., “Führer-Erlasse,” 1939–1945 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1997), 345, decree of June 28, 1943.
199 BA-B, R 3101/31170, Führer Decree, “Über Sicherstellung vom Raumen zur Aufnahme von Rüstungsfertigungen aus luftgefährdeten Gebieten”; Armaments Ministry order, “Betriebsverlagerung und Verlagerung von Lager,” July 14, 1943.
200 IWM, MD, vol. 56, Air Ministry Technical Office to Milch, October 22, 1942; report from Planning Office for Milch, October 14, 1942.
201 Ibid., Planning Office to Milch on dispersal policy, November 17, 1942; BA-MA, RL 36/52, report on conferences of July 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, and 30, 1943, “Über die Massnahmen zur Verstärkung der Luftverteidigung.”
202 Details from Friedhelm Golücke, Schweinfurt und der strategische Luftkrieg, 1943 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1980), 351–53, 357–58, 363–64, 368–70, 372, 378–80.
203 BA-B, RL 3/36, Air Ministry Technical Office Report, “Über die Gründe.”
204 Details in USSBS, Report 7, “Erla Maschinenwerke GmbH, Leipzig,” 1–2, 6; Report 9, “Gothaer Waggonfabrik AG, Gotha,” 1–2, 13; Report 14, “Wiener-Neustädter Flugzeugwerke,” 1–2, 9–12.
205 IWM, MD, vol. 51, Main Committee Iron Production (Dr. Helmut Rohland) to all industry heads, March 27, 1944, 2.
206 IWM, EDS MI 14/133, Army High Command, “Studie über Rüstung,” January 25, 1944.
207 IWM, EDS AL/1746, interrogation of Karl-Otto Saur, August 10, 1945; Box S368, Report 90, “Rationalisation in the Components Industry,” 34; Dietrich Eichholtz, Geschichte der deutschen Kriegswirtschaft. Band 2: 1941–1943 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1999), 316–17.
208 BA-B, R 3101/11921, Economics Ministry, Weekly Reports on Economic Conditions, February 7, 1944, 1; May 27, 1944, 1; September 28, 1944, 1; October 21, 1944, 7. See too Bernhard Kroener, “‘Menschenbewirtschaftung,’ Bevölkerungsverteilung und personelle Rüstung in der zweiten Kriegshälfte (1942–1944),” in Kroener, Müller, and Umbreit, Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkriege, Band 5/2, 931–34.
209 BA-B, R 3101/11921, Economics Ministry Weekly Report, February 14, 1944, 1; IWM, Box S366, FIAT Report, “Statistical Material on the German Manpower Position During the War Period,” July 31, 1945. On Daimler-Benz, see Pohl and Treue, Die Daimler-Benz AG, 145.
210 BA-B, R 3101/11921, Economics Ministry Weekly Report, December 18, 1944, 7. See too Cornelia Rauh-Kühne, “Hitlers Hehler? Unternehmerprofite und Zwangsarbeiterlöhne,” Historische Zeitschrift 275 (2002): 40–41.
211 BA-B, R 3101/11921, Economics Ministry Weekly Report, December 18, 1944, 7. The proportion of hours lost for each category was as follows: air raids 2.5 percent, illness 5.7 percent, leave 3.0 percent, truancy 1.3 percent, workplace problems 3.5 percent.
212 BA-B, R 3102/10031, Statistical Office, “Vermerk über die Auswirkung der feindlichen Luftangriffe auf die Arbeiterstundenleistung der Industrie,” January 27, 1945, 2.
213 IWM, Box S126, BBSU, “MS notes on Ford Cologne.”
214 TNA, AIR 10/3873, BBSU, “German Experience in the Underground Transfer of War Industries,” App. 1, “Survey of Natural Underground Facilities in Greater Germany,” July 1, 1943; BA-B, R 3101/31170, Mining Office, Bavaria to Mines Department, Economics Ministry, July 29, 1943; Dortmund Mining Office to Mines Department, August 7, 1943. For an excellent overview of the underground program see Paul Clemence, “German Underground Factories of the Second World War: An Essential Folly” (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Exeter, 2008), chaps. 2–3.
215 TNA, AIR 10/3873, BBSU, “German Experience,” 5.
216 CIOS Report XXX-80, “Bavarian Motor Works: A Production Survey” (1946), 44–45, 50–51; Hans Mommsen and Manfried Grieger, Das Volkswagenwerk und seine Arbeiter im Dritten Reich (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1997), 844–45, 879, 1027; Rauh-Kühne, “Hitlers Hehler?,” 44–45.
217 TNA, AIR 10/3873, BBSU, “German Experience,” 10, 14–15.
218 BA-B, R 3101/11921, Economic Ministry weekly reports, February 12, 1944, 1; March 11, 1944, 1; July 28, 1944, 1; September 23, 1944, 1.
219 IWM, S368, FIAT Report 67, “Causes in the Decline of German Industrial Production,” December 13, 1945, 5, interrogation of Wilhelm Schaaf, 13, interrogation of Karl-Otto Saur, 13.
220 Ibid., Report 52, interrogation of S. Stieler von Heydekampf, October 6, 1945, 10.
221 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 203, J. K. Galbraith, “Preliminary Appraisal of Achievement of Strategic Bombing of Germany,” 2.
222 BA-B, R 3102/10031, Statistical Office, “Statistik der Luftkriegsschädenbetroffene Industriebetriebe: November 1944”; Reich Statistical Office, “Die Tätigkeit der feindlichen Luftwaffe über den Reichsgebiete im September 1944.”
223 IWM, Box S368, FIAT Report 67, interrogation of Karl-Otto Saur, 12.
224 IWM, EDS MI 14/133, OKH, General-Quartermaster Planning Office, “Sturm-Programm,” January 9, 1945, 1–6.
225 IWM, Box S369, SHAEF-G2, interrogation of Albert Speer, June 7, 1945, 3; Box S368, FIAT Report 83, April 5, 1946, App. 1, “Speer’s Outside Organization”; on the autarkic zones, BA-B, R 12 I/9, Reichsgruppe Industrie to all Economic Groups, March 5, 1945, “Verkehrsnot: Bildung eines Verkehrsstabes”; Reichsgruppe Industrie to Economic Groups, March 8, 1945, “Einsatz von Rüstungsbevollmächtigten.”
226 Rumpf, Bombing of Germany, 130–31.
227 BA-B, R 1501/949, Himmler to all Reich authorities, February 21, 1944.
228 Irmtraud Permooser, Der Luftkrieg über München, 1942–1945: Bomben auf die Hauptstadt der Bewegung (Oberhachung: Aviatic Verlag, 1996), 359; Busch, Der Luftkrieg im Raum Mainz, 367.
229 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 55.
230 Linhardt, Feuerwehr im Luftschutz, 172–74; Brinkhus, “Ziviler Luftschutz,” 38–39. On the “Air Protection Regiments” (Luftschutz-Regimenten) see, e.g., RL 13/4, Einsatz LS-Regiment 7, Luftgau VII, February 26–March 25, 1945.
231 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Hesse-Rheinland, Rundschreiben, June 9, 1944.
232 BA-B, R 1501/1513, Interior Ministry to RVK, Gauleiter, Reichsstatthalter, January 6, 1944, encl. “Erlass des Führers über die Errichtung einer Reichsinspektion der zivilen Luftkriegsmassnahmen,” December 21, 1943.
233 BA-B, R 1501/949, Himmler to all RVK, September 10, 1944, “Vorbereitungen für die Verteidigung des Reiches.” On Goebbels’s new office, see Süss, “Steuerung durch Information?, 202–4; Reuth, Goebbels, 324–27.
234 BA-B, R 1501/1513, Gauleitung Sudetenland to NSDAP-Leitung, February 3, 1944; Report from Reich Defense Commissar Hannover-Ost, August 1944.
235 BA-B, R 3101/31135, Polizeiliche Anordnung über die Luftschutzdienstpflicht im Selbstschutz, August 27, 1943.
236 BA-B, R 1501/949, Propaganda Ministry (Berndt) to the Inter-Ministerial Committee, January 29, 1944, encl. memorandum from Goebbels, 2.
237 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 54–55.
238 BA-MA, RL 41/7, RLB, Hesse-Rheinland, Rundschreiben, May 6, 1944.
239 BA-B, R 1501/906, Speer to all OT-Einsatzgruppenleiter and RVK Baubeauftragten, September 28, 1944, 2.
240 BA-B, R 3101/11922, Reichsgruppe Handwerk memorandum, June 9, 1943; Reichsgruppe Handwerk to Transport Ministry, August 23, 1943; Reichsgruppe Handwerk to Economics Ministry, May 22, 1944; Finance Ministry to Economics Ministry, July 15, 1944.
241 BA-B, R 3102/10031, Otto Ohlendorf (Economics Ministry) to Reich Statistical Office, March 9, 1944.
242 Ibid., Economics Ministry note, “Fliegerschäden in Monat Oktober 1944”; “Fliegerschäden Januar/Dezember 1943.”
243 Ibid., Air Ministry, LS-Arbeitsstab, “Übersicht über Luftangriffe und Bombenabwürfe im Heimatkriegsgebiet,” November 1944.
244 BA-B, R 1501/3723, Interior Ministry to all Reich authorities, June 24, 1944.
245 Ibid., Interior Ministry (Murray), “Für die Trinkwasserversorgung bereitgestellte Tankfahrzeuge,” June 1944; Generalinspektor für Wasser und Energie, memorandum for Wirtschaftsgruppe Wasser, “Luftschutz an Wasserversorgungsanlagen,” August 7, 1944.
246 Ibid., Eastern German Brewing Association to Interior Ministry, September 13, 1943; “Brunnenvorhaben in Gross-Berlin,” June 30, 1944; Interior Ministry memorandum, June 30, 1944.
247 BA-B, R 13/XVII/21, Wirtschaftsgruppe Gas-und Wasserversorgung, Angriff auf Leipzig, December 6, 1943; Luftangriffsmeldung, September 4, 1943; on gas capacity see “Durchschnittliche Tagesleistung der 950 Erzeugerwerke von Stadtgas, Juli bis November 1943,” which shows spare capacity on each date approximately double the capacity damaged by bombing.
248 BA-B, R 13/XVII/49, “Fliegergeschädigte Werke, Stand 1.6.1944”; Generalinspektor für Wasser und Energie to Wirtschaftsgruppe, November 22, 1944; Generalinspektor to Niederrheinische Licht-und Kraftwerke AG, November 1, 1944, approving the permanent closure of the Mönchengladbach gasholder.
249 Anon., A Woman in Berlin (London: Virago, 2005), 19.
250 BA-B, R 3102/10031, list of damaged cultural and artistic treasures, May 15, 1944; Stadtsynodalverband, Berlin, “Fliegerschäden an kirchlichen Gebäude 28 April bis 1 Juni 1944.”
251 Permooser, Der Luftkrieg über München, 372–75.
252 Busch, Der Luftkrieg im Raum Mainz, 361.
253 BA-B, R 1501/949, Goebbels memorandum, January 28, 1944, 3.
254 Ibid., Himmler to all Reich authorities, February 21, 1944.
255 BA-B, R 3102/10044, NSDAP, Reichsleitung, Hauptamt für Volkswohlfahft, Stand der Umquartierung, January 11, 1945. See too Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 281–82; Zelinsky and Kosinski, Emergency Evacuation, 167–68, 171–73; Klee, Im “Luftschutzkeller des Reiches,” 150–51, 172–73.
256 Iklé, Social Impact of Bomb Destruction, 66–67.
257 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 14:5645, August 19, 1943.
258 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 447.
259 BA-B, R 3102/10031, Economics Ministry, “Fliegerschäden in Monat August 1944”; “Fliegerschäden in Monat Oktober 1944”; Reich Statistical Office, “Die Tätigkeit der feindlichen Luftwaffe über dem Reichsgebiet, Oktober 1944,” January 10, 1945, 9.
260 TNA, AIR 48/29, USSBS, Civilian Defense Division: Final Report, 3 (using LS-Arbeitsstab figures for Greater Germany).
261 BA-B, NS 18/1063, Partei-Kanzlei, Abt. PG, “Angaben über die Verluste nach Fliegerangriffen,” October 2, 1942; Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 316–20.
262 Hans Sperling, “Deutsche Bevölkerungsbilanz des 2. Weltkrieges,” Wirtschaft und Statistik 8 (1956): 498–99.
263 Groehler, Bombenkrieg, 320; Blank, “Kriegsalltag und Luftkrieg,” 459–60.
264 Calculated from Martin Middlebrook and Chris Everitt, The Bomber Command War Diaries (Leicester: Midland Publishing, 2000), 657–701.
265 Anon., Woman in Berlin, 22–23.
266 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 16:6466, April 6, 1944.
267 Ibid., 17:6618, June 29, 1944; 6646, July 14, 1944; 6697–98, August 8, 1944.
268 Ibid., 16:6298, February 3, 1944; 6414, March 1944; 17:6509–10, May 4, 1944; 6565, June 1, 1944; Neil Gregor, “A Schicksalsgemeinschaft? Allied Bombing, Civilian Morale, and Social Dissolution in Nuremberg, 1942–1945,” Historical Journal 43 (2000): 1051–70.
269 USSBS, Report 64b, “Effects of Bombing on German Morale,” 19–20.
270 Ibid., 16. The percentages were: military reverses, 48 percent; Allied superiority, 24 percent; air raids, 15 percent; war shortages, 2 percent; miscellaneous, 11 percent.
271 Dietmar Süss, “Nationalsozialistische Deutungen des Luftkrieges,” in Deutschland im Luftkrieg, 104–8. On living standards see Gernot Wiese, “Die Versorgungslage in Deutschland,” in Michael Salewski and Guntram Schulze-Wegener, eds., Kriegsjahr 1944: Im Grossen und im Kleinen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1995), 340–46.
272 Hans Schlange-Schoeningen, The Morning After (London: Gollancz, 1948), 229, entry for January 1, 1945.
273 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 16:6302–4, February 7, 1944, “Gefühlsmässige Einstellung der Bevölkerung gegenüber den Feinden.”
274 Barbara Grimm, “Lynchmorde an allierten Fliegern im Zweiten Weltkrieg,” in Süss, Deutschland im Luftkrieg, 75–76; Neville Wylie, “Muted Applause? British Prisoners of War as Observers and Victims of the Allied Bombing Campaign over Germany,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 266–67; Blank, “Kriegsalltag und Luftkrieg,” 449–50.
275 Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 17:6566, June 1, 1944; Hugh Trevor-Roper, ed., Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973), 696, entry for September 6, 1942; Grimm, “Lynchmorde,” 79–80.
276 Nossack, The End, 34; criticism of Goebbels in Boberach, Meldungen aus dem Reich, 17:6566.
277 Marlene Hiller, “Stuttgarter erzählen vom Luftkrieg,” in Marlene Hiller, ed., Stuttgart im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Gerlingen: Bleicher Verlag, 1989), 425.
278 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 10, 14–15.
279 BA-MA, RL 13/2, Luftschutz-Regiment 3 to Luftgaukommando III, Einsatzbericht, August 9, 1944.
280 BA-MA, RL 13/4, LS-Regiment 7, Luftgau VII, Erfahrungsbericht, February 26–March 25, 1945; LS-Regiment, Abteilung 22 to LS-Regimentstab, February 25, 1945, “Einsatzbericht: Nürnberg von 20 bis 23 Februar 1945.”
281 Matthias Gretzschel, Als Dresden im Feuersturm versank (Hamburg: Eller & Richter, 2004), 148–49; Victor Klemperer, To the Bitter End: The Diaries of Victor Klemperer, 1942–45 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), 387. The fullest account of the raid is Frederick Taylor, Dresden: Tuesday 13 February 1945 (London: Bloomsbury, 2004).
282 Klemperer, To the Bitter End, 393, entry for February 22–24, 1945.
283 Erich Hampe, . . . als alles in Scherben fiel (Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1979), 119–21.
284 Oliver Reinhard, Matthias Neutzner, and Wolfgang Hesse, Das rote Leuchten: Dresden und der Bombenkrieg (Dresden: Sächsische Zeitung, 2005), 101–2.
285 Gretzschel, Als Dresden im Feuersturm versank, 149; Gretzschel, “Dresden im Dritten Reich,” in Hamburg und Dresden im Dritten Reich, 97–98.
286 Klemperer, To the Bitter End, 398, entry for February 19, 1945; Matthias Neutzner, “Wozu leben wir nun noch?” Die Dresdner Bevölkerung vom 13/14 Februar bis zum 17 April 1945,” in Hamburg und Dresden im Dritten Reich, 100.
287 Schlange-Schoeningen, Morning After, 232–33.
288 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 21–22.
289 Anon., Woman in Berlin, 48.
290 Irmgard Hunt, On Hitler’s Mountain: My Nazi Childhood (London: Atlantic Books, 2005), 220, 222–23, 225.
291 Süssmilch, Im Bunker, 221–22.
Chapter 5. Italy: The War of Bombs and Words
1 British Committee on the Preservation and Restitution of Works of Art, Works of Art in Italy: Losses and Survival in the War: Part I—South of Bologna (London: HMSO, 1945); Part II—North of Bologna (London: HMSO, 1946).
2 IWM, Duxford, Italian Series (Air Force), Box 22, E2566, Italian air staff study, “Contributo italiano allo sforzo bellico: Attività della RA dall’ 8 settembre 1943 all’ 8 maggio 1945,” 15–16.
3 Gregory Alegi, “Qualità del materiale bellico e dottrina d’impiego italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale: Il caso della Regia Aeronautica,” Storia Contemporanea 18 (1987): 1213.
4 TNA, AIR 2/7197, HQ British Air Force in France to the Air Ministry, April 26, 1940. See too Claudia Baldoli and Andrew Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes: France and Italy under Allied Air Attack, 1940–1945 (London: Continuum, 2012), 19–20.
5 TNA, AIR 75/8, Slessor papers, “Operation Haddock: Plan for Attack of Italian War Industry,” June 2, 1940.
6 TNA, AIR 35/325, report for the Air Ministry, “Haddock Force—Historical Diary,” June 20, 1940, 2–9; Denis Richards, Royal Air Force, 1939–1945, vol. 1, The Fight at Odds (London: HMSO, 1974), 145–47.
7 Stephen Harvey, “The Italian War Effort and the Strategic Bombing of Italy,” History 70 (1985): 38.
8 TNA, AIR 20/283, Air Ministry, notes on bomb attacks, August 20, 1940.
9 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9, Walter Monckton (MoI) to Portal, November 8, 1940.
10 TNA, FO 898/457, PWE, “Annual Dissemination of Leaflets by Aircraft and Balloon, 1939–1945.”
11 TNA, AIR 23/7325, Air Ministry propaganda department to RAF commander, Malta, December 4, 1940.
12 TNA, AIR 23/7375, AI, HQ RAF, Malta, to Malta Information Office, November 28, 1940.
13 Ibid., Air Ministry to C-in-C, Malta, January 18, 1941; HQ RAF Med to Luqa airbase, February 13, 1941; War Office, Deputy Director Military Intelligence to C-in-C, Malta, April 21, 1941.
14 TNA, AIR 2/7397, Air Ministry to HQ Middle East, September 5, 1941.
15 TNA, AIR 23/5752, Wellington Operations from Malta; Marco Gioannini and Giulio Massobrio, Bombardate l’Italia: Storia della guerra di distruzione aerea, 1940–45 (Milan: Rizzoli, 2007), online appendix.
16 TNA, AIR 2/7397, HQ RAF Med to Bomber Command HQ, November 1, 1940; HQ Malta to HQ Middle East, November 14, 1940; HQ Malta to HQ Middle East, November 23, 1940.
17 TNA, AIR 8/436, Cadogan (Permanent Secretary, Foreign Office) to Portal, October 21, 1941; Portal to Cadogan, October 26, 1941.
18 TNA, AIR 2/7397, Cadogan to Freeman (DCAS), January 8, 1942; Freeman to Cadogan, January 9, 1942.
19 Ibid., reports on raids in October and November 1941 classified nine of the sixteen raids as nuisance raids, using fewer than seven aircraft. On British policy see Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 20–21, 25.
20 TNA, AIR 2/7397, RAF HQ Malta to Air Ministry, November 9, 1940; Portal to Deputy Chief of Staff (Harris), November 10, 1940.
21 TNA, AIR 8/435, minute by Churchill for Portal and Sinclair, December 3, 1942.
22 TNA, AIR 19/215, Portal to Churchill, November 29, 1942; Portal to Churchill, December 1, 1942.
23 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/OEMU/50, Ministry of Home Security, RE8, “Note on Italian Construction and Its Vulnerability to I.B. and H.E. Bombs,” December 30, 1942; RE8, “Note on Italian Domestic Architecture,” November 4, 1943, 1. On the Milan raid, CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, Memorandum BOps, November 15, 1942, “Milan: Daylight Raid 24 October 1942.”
24 CCAC, Bufton papers, 3/26, BOps to director of tactics, May 31, 1943.
25 Macgregor Knox, Hitler’s Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime and the War of 1940–1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 101.
26 IWM, Italian Series, Box 25, “Relazione statistica sull’attività operativa,” 8.
27 Paolo Formiconi, “La protezione e la difesa contraerea del regime fascista: Evoluzione istituzionale,” in Nicola Labanca, ed., I bombardamenti aerei sull’Italia (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2012), 123–25.
28 IWM, Italian Series, Box 1, E2476, Ufficio operazioni aeronautica, memorandum for the commanding general, March 5, 1943, 1–2.
29 IWM, Italian Series, Box 2, E2485, Relazioni critiche mensili dei reparti intercettori, December 1942, January and May 1943. On radios see Box 3, E2489, Superaereo to department of air armament, “Riunione del 28 novembre 1942; tipo di onda per la caccia notturna,” December 1, 1942.
30 IWM, Italian Series, Box 3, E2489, liaison officer of XII Fliegerkorps, “Protocollo della riunione, 9 June 1943”; Box 1, E2476, Comando Supremo to Superaereo, Superesercito, Supermarina, March 13, 1943, “Difesa contro-aerea”; Comando Supremo, memorandum for Gen. Addetto, March 10, 1943.
31 IWM, Italian Series, Box 2, E2485, Relazioni critiche mensili dei reparti intercettori, May 1943, 1–2.
32 IWM, Italian Series, Box 3, E2489, maps of “Nuovo progetto di schieramento di caccia notturna,” June 9, 1943, July 1943, August 15, 1943; Luigi Castioni, “I radar industriali italiani: Ricerche, ricordi, considerazioni per una loro storia,” Storia Contemporanea (1987): 1250–51, 1254.
33 IWM, Italian Series, Box 1, E2470, Antiaircraft CoS to Gen. Presso, February 20, 1943; Gen. von Pohl to Italian Army Staff (Air Defense), March 15, 1943.
34 Andrea Natalini, I rapporti tra aeronautica italiana e tedesca durante la seconda guerra mondiale (Cosenza: Edizioni Lionello Giordano, 2004), 157–61. Night fighters in IWM, Italian Series, Box 3, E2489, MdAe, “Appunto per il Duce,” May 1943, 4.
35 Natalini, I rapporti tra aeronautica italiana e tedesca, 162–64; IWM, Italian Series, Box 3, E2489, MdAe, “Appunto per il Duce,” May 1943.
36 IWM, Italian Series, Box 10, E2528, Italian embassy, Berlin, to the minister for air, July 25, 1941; Italian embassy to minister for air, July 23, 1941, encl. “Collaborazione industriale aeronautica fra Italia e Germania.”
37 Nicola della Volpe, Difesa del territorio e protezione antiaerea, 1915–1943: Storia, documenti, immagini (Rome: Ufficio storico SME, 1986), 194–203, doc. 17, “Istruzione sulla protezione antiaerea.”
38 ACS, MdAe, Busta 82, Ministry of War to all ministries, February 18, 1939; Volpe, Difesa del territorio, 36. Active air defense was allocated 252 million lire in 1938–39 but civil defense only 20.8 million.
39 ACS, MdAe, Busta 82, Gen. Valle to Mussolini, April 23, 1939, encl. air staff memorandum, April 18, 1939.
40 Volpe, Difesa del territorio, 209–10, doc. 18, Army Council meeting, May 8, 1939.
41 ACS, MdAe, Busta 82, Ministry of War to all prefects and regional military authorities, June 10, 1940.
42 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 54; Volpe, Difesa del territorio, 46–48.
43 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 71–73.
44 ACS, MdAe, Busta 82, War Ministry to all ministries and prefects, May 29, 1940; Interior Ministry to Air Ministry, October 2, 1940; Comando della 3 Zona Aerea to Air Ministry, November 11, 1940; note from secretary to the Duce to the Air Ministry, November 16, 1940.
45 TNA, AIR 20/5384, Genoa prefect to Interior Ministry, June 18, 1940.
46 ACS, MdAe, Busta 82, Commissariat for War Production to the War Ministry, June 24, 1940.
47 Franco Manaresi, “La protezione antiaerea,” in Cristina Bersani and Valeria Monaco, eds., Delenda Bononia: Immagini dei bombardamenti, 1943–1945 (Bologna: Patron Editori, 1995), 29–30.
48 Carlotta Coccoli, “I ‘fortilizi inespugnabili della civiltà italiana’: La protezione antiaerea del patrimonio monumentale italiano durante la seconda guerra mondiale,” Scienza e Beni Culturali 26 (2010): 410–12.
49 Marta Nezzo, “The Defence of Works of Art in Italy During the Second World War,” in Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, and Richard Overy, eds., Bombing, States and Peoples in Western Europe, 1940–1945 (London: Continuum, 2011), 104–6.
50 ACS, MdAe, Busta 56, telecommunications inspectorate report for Air Ministry, “Danni di guerra a stabilimenti ausiliari,” February 9, 1943; director general of construction, Air Ministry, January 15, 1943; TNA, AIR 20/5387, Italian Ministry of Public Works, “Damage Caused by Air Raids on Piemonte—October and November 1942”; report from prefect in Genoa on air raids of November 13–14, 15–16, and 18, 1942 (both translations from Italian originals).
51 ACS, MdAe, Busta 46, Ministry of War to all ministries, November 15, 1942; memorandum for the Comando Supremo, November 19, 1942, 1–2.
52 Ibid., MdAE memorandum for Mussolini, December 10, 1942, “Dislocamento dell’industrie aeronautiche”; Air Ministry, “Appunti per il Duce,” December 15, 1942; Office of MdAE Inspectorate, minutes of meeting with Ministry of Corporations, December 14, 1942.
53 ACS, MdAe, Busta 56, memorandum, “Ripresa produzione officine Alfa Romeo, Pomigliano,” June 14, 1943.
54 Cited in Leonardo Paggi, Il “popolo dei morti”: La repubblica italiana nata della guerra (1940–1946) (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2009), 108–9.
55 Iris Origo, War in Val d’Orcia: An Italian War Diary, 1943–1944 (London: Allison & Busby, 2003), 28–29, entry for January 30, 1943.
56 ACS, MdAe, Busta 55, Air Ministry minute, July 18, 1943; Busta 46, memorandum by Col. Galante, November 30, 1942.
57 ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 21, Police HQ Genoa to Ministry, November 14, 1942; prefect of Turin to ministry, December 19, 1942; sticker samples, “Merda!”
58 Elena Cortesi, “Evacuation in Italy during the Second World War: Evolution and Management,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 60–62.
59 Paggi, Il “popolo dei morti,” 107, 110–11; Cortesi, “Evacuation in Italy,” 62–63.
60 Paggi, Il “popolo dei morti,” 110–12; Manuela Lanari and Stefano Musso, “Un dramma mal calcolato: Sfollamento e istituzioni nella provincia di Torino,” in Bruno Maida, ed., Guerra e società nella provincia di Torino (Turin: Blu Edizioni, 2007), 14, 24–26, 28–29.
61 TNA, AIR 19/215, Sinclair to Churchill, December 4, 1942.
62 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 72, OSS Bulletin, April 7, 1943; OSS Report, April 19, 1943 (from Bern).
63 TNA, FO 898/175, “Report on Colonel Thornhill’s Mission on Political Warfare in General Eisenhower’s Command,” November 16, 1943, App. 10 and App. 14.
64 ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 21, Office of Caribinieri, Genoa, to Ministry of Interior, November 16, 1942.
65 TNA, FO 898/175, Allied Force HQ, Algiers, PWB memorandum, “Combat Propaganda—Leaflet Distribution,” June 15, 1943.
66 Cesare de Simone, Venti angeli sopra Roma: I bombardamenti aerei sulla Città Eterna (Milan: Mursia, 1993), 266. On Fascist propaganda see Claudia Baldoli and Marco Fincardi, “Italian Society Under Anglo-American Bombs: Propaganda, Experience and Legend, 1940–1945,” Historical Journal 52 (2009): 1032–34, 1037.
67 ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 21, “Appunto per il Duce,” July 7, 1943.
68 TNA, AIR 2/7397, Air Ministry to C-in-C Bomber Command, October 28, 1940; Air Ministry to C-in-C Bomber Command, October 29, 1940; Sinclair to Churchill, February 24, 1941; Churchill to Sinclair, February 28, 1941.
69 TNA, AIR 8/436, HQ RAF Middle East to Air Ministry, September 4, 1941; Sir Miles Lampson (ambassador in Cairo) to the Foreign Office, September 17, 1941; AIR 2/7397, Air Ministry to HQ RAF Middle East, March 27, 1941; Air Ministry to HQ RAF Middle East, September 5, 1941.
70 TNA, AIR 8/436, Portal to Cadogan (Permanent Secretary, Foreign Office), October 26, 1941.
71 TNA, AIR 19/215, note for Sinclair, “Bombing of Targets in Rome,” December 1942; Sinclair to Churchill, December 4, 1942, 1–2.
72 Ibid., marginalia on “Bombing of Targets in Rome,” December 1942; Sinclair to Churchill, December 4, 1942; Sinclair to Portal, December 11, 1942; Foreign Office to British embassy, Bern, December 17, 1942.
73 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 4/File 2, Eden to Churchill, July 14, 1943; TNA, AIR 19/215, Portal to Sinclair, December 3, 1942; Portal to Churchill, July 13, 1943.
74 Warren Kimball, ed., Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence (London: Collins, 1984), 2:234–35, Churchill to Roosevelt, June 10, 1943; 250–51, Roosevelt to Churchill, June 14, 1943.
75 TNA, AIR 19/215, RAF Delegation, Washington, DC, to Air Ministry, June 26, 1943.
76 Ibid., Archbishop Temple to Sinclair, July 9, 1943; note by the ACAS (Information), “Air Attacks on Objectives in Rome,” July 4, 1943; minute by ACAS, July 15, 1943; Sinclair to Temple, July 17, 1943.
77 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.36, North-West African Strategic Air Forces (NWASAF), Report and Evaluation, Rome, July 19, 1943: Rome Railroad Yards, Mission Report.
78 Claudia Baldoli, “Bombing the Eternal City,” History Today, May 2012, 11; Simone, Venti angeli sopra Roma, 262–64.
79 Marco Fincardi, “Gli italiani e l’attesa di un bombardamento della capitale (1940–1943),” in Labanca, I bombardamenti aerei, 239.
80 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 33, CCS to Eisenhower, June 25, 1943; Eisenhower to War Dept., Washington, DC, July 18, 1943.
81 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 72, OSS Bulletin, July 30, 1943; Fincardi, “Gli italiani e l’attesa di un bombardamento della capitale,” 233–34, 242–43.
82 Raymond Klibansky, ed., Mussolini’s Memoirs, 1942–1943 (London: Phoenix Press, 2000), 51–55.
83 TNA, FO 898/175, Report of Col. Thornhill’s Mission, November 16, 1943, App. 14.
84 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 94, Total tonnage dropped, August 1942–May 1944.
85 TNA, AIR 20/5387, Ministry of Public Works, Statistics on Bomb Damage, June 10, 1940–March 31, 1943. The list did not include buildings lost in Milan, Genoa, and Palermo.
86 Paggi, Il “popolo dei morti,” 114–17.
87 Cited in Gloria Chianese, “Quando uscimmo dai rifugi”: Il Mezzogiorno tra guerra e dopoguerra (1943–46) (Rome: Carocci editore, 2004), 35–36. On Naples see Gabriella Gribaudi, Guerra totale: Tra bombe alleate e violenza naziste; Napoli e il fronte meridionale, 1940–44 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 2005), chap. 3.
88 See Gabriella Gribaudi, “Tra discorsi pubblici e memorie private: Alcune riflessioni sui bombardamenti e sulla loro legittimazione,” in Labanca, I bombardamenti aerei, 315–18; Marco Gioannini, “Bombardate l’Italia: Le strategie alleate e le vittime civili,” in Gioannini and Massobrio, Bombardate l’Italia, 92–93.
89 Claudia Baldoli, “Spring 1943: The Fiat Strikes and the Collapse of the Italian Home Front,” History Workshop Journal 72 (2011): 183–86.
90 TNA, AIR 20/5383, report from the Commune of Rome, May 1943; province of Genoa, “Situation During the Month of May 1943”; province of Turin, “Situation during the Month of May 1943”; province of Palermo, “Report for the Month May 1943.”
91 Origo, War in Val d’Orcia, 35, 39–40, entry for April 1, 1943.
92 Paggi, Il “popolo dei morti,” 119; the prayer in Origo, War in Val d’Orcia, 36. The best account of the role of religion in Italian efforts to cope with bombing is Claudia Baldoli, “Religion and Bombing in Italy,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 136–53.
93 TNA, AIR 19/215, VCAS (Air Marshal Evill) to Sinclair, July 31, 1943; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 3/File 3, Portal to Tedder, July 30, 1943.
94 TNA, FO 898/496, leaflet, “Fuori i tedeschi—oppure ferro e fuoco,” July 29, 1943; leaflet, “Il governo,” August 14, 1943.
95 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 33, CCS to Eisenhower (n.d.); message for the president from Gen. Marshall, August 2, 1943; Churchill to Roosevelt, August 3, 1943; memorandum for the president from Admiral Leahy, August 16, 1943; CCS to Eisenhower, August 15, 1943; Simone, Venti angeli sopra Roma, 301.
96 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 72, OSS Bulletin, August 3, 1943; report, August 17, 1943, “Italy: Badoglio’s Position vis-à-vis the Germans.” Details of raids in Chianese, “Quando uscimmo dai rifugi,” 31; Gioannini and Massobrio, Bombardate l’Italia, 360–61, 365–66.
97 The best guide to the complex web of command and the thicket of acronyms is Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 3, Europe: Argument to V-E Day (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 326–35.
98 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, American embassy (Economic Warfare Division) to NAAF, December 16, 1943, 2, 4–5.
99 Ibid., HQ NAAF (Norstad) to commanding general NAAF, November 14, 1943.
100 Ibid., Cabell to Eaker, Bombing Directive, March 1, 1945.
101 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 94, Total tonnage AAF-RAF, January–May 1944.
102 Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Center for Air Force History, 1993), App. 10 and App. 18.
103 TNA, AIR 8/777, Harris to Portal, November 13, 1942.
104 Harvey, “Italian War Effort,” 41.
105 TNA, AIR 20/283, Statistics on Bombing, February–November 1943.
106 British Air Ministry, The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 1933–1945 (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1983), 219, 258–60, 265–66.
107 Davis, Carl A. Spaatz, App. 24.
108 Joseph Heller, Catch-22 (London: Vintage, 1994), 55.
109 Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 47–48; Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, 1904–19: An Autobiography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 211.
110 TNA, AIR 19/215, HQ MAAF (Eaker) to Air Ministry, April 7, 1944.
111 Schaffer, Wings of Judgment, 49–50.
112 TNA, AIR 19/215, Slessor to Air Ministry, February 29, 1944; Ismay to Churchill, March 1, 1944; conclusions of CoS meeting, March 2, 1944.
113 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, Norstad to Allied Tactical Air Forces, Bombing Directive: Florence Marshaling Yards, March 2, 1944.
114 TNA, AIR 19/215, Slessor to Sinclair, May 7, 1944.
115 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 33, Marshall to Eisenhower, September 27, 1943; JCS to Eisenhower, November 2, 1943; TNA, AIR 8/438, Foreign Office to JSM, Washington, DC, September 23, 1943; CCS memorandum, “Rome Open City,” September 24, 1943; Osborne (ambassador to Holy See) to Foreign Office, October 14, 1943.
116 TNA, AIR 19/215, Osborne to Foreign Office (War Cabinet distribution), November 6, 1943; resident minister Algiers (Harold Macmillan) to Foreign Office, November 8, 1943.
117 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 33, JCS memorandum for the president, December 4, 1943; memorandum for the president from Admiral Leahy, December 5, 1943; Roosevelt to Cordell Hull, December 7, 1943.
118 TNA, WO 204/12508, Maj. F. Jones, “Report on the Events Leading to the Bombing of the Abbey of Monte Cassino on 15 February 1944,” October 14, 1949, 7–13.
119 Ibid., 20–23.
120 James Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here”: General Ira Eaker and the Command of the Air (Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1986), 363–64.
121 Peter Caddick-Adams, Monte Cassino: Ten Armies in Hell (London: Preface Publishing, 2012), 145–46.
122 TNA, AIR 8/777, Wilson to the CoS, March 9, 1944.
123 John Slessor, The Central Blue: Recollections and Reflections (London: Cassell, 1956), 576–77.
124 TNA, WO 204/12508, “Report on the Events,” 31–33; App. 3, Doc. 26A, HQ Fifth Army memorandum, “Monte Cassino Abbey,” February 28, 1944.
125 Slessor, Central Blue, 574, reproducing his memorandum for Portal, April 16, 1944.
126 Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, 198, 210–11.
127 Slessor, Central Blue, 566–68.
128 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, MAAF Bombing Directive, February 18, 1944.
129 TNA, AIR 20/2050, Summary of MAAF Effort, Operation “Strangle,” March 15–May 11, 1944.
130 Ibid., Summary of MAAF Effort: Operation “Diadem,” May 12–June 22; Parton, “Air Force Spoken Here,” 383–84.
131 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 230, memorandum by Lt. Col. W. Ballard, Analysis Section, MAAF, September 28, 1944, 2.
132 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/1/49, interview with Kesselring, August 23, 1945, 3.
133 Paolo Ferrari, “Un arma versatile: I bombardamenti strategici anglo-americani e l’industria italiana,” in Paolo Ferrari, ed., L’aeronautica italiana: Una storia del Novecento (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2004), 401–2; Alessandro Massignani, “L’industria bellica italiana e la Germania nella seconda guerra mondiale,” Italia Contemporanea 190 (1993), 195; Natalini, I rapporti tra aeronautica italiana e tedesca, 165–66.
134 Lutz Klinkhammer, L’occupazione tedesca in Italia, 1943–1945 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 1996), 78–84; Natalini, I rapporti tra aeronautica italiana e tedesca, 166–67.
135 Andrea Villa, Guerra aerea sull’Italia (1943–1945) (Milan: Angelo Guerini, 2010), 217–18.
136 Achille Rastelli, Bombe sulla città: Gli attacchi aerei alleati; Le vittime civili a Milano (Milan: Mursia, 2000), 145–47, 184. The figure of 197 dead recorded from the other seventeen raids is clearly an incomplete figure, but an indication that casualties in most raids on Italy at this stage of the war in a city with wide experience of bombing were relatively low.
137 Villa, Guerra aerea, 219–20; Natalini, I rapporti tra aeronautica italiana e tedesca, 167.
138 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 230, MAAF, Target Committee, minutes of meeting, February 23, 1945, 4.
139 Villa, Guerra aerea, 226–27. For other estimates see vera Zamagni, “Italy: How to Lose the War and Win the Peace,” in Mark Harrison, ed., The Economics of World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), C207–12.
140 Ferrari, “Un arma versatile,” 397–99. Housing loss in Zamagni, “Italy: How to Lose the War,” 212, who shows that because of additional housing built between 1938 and 1941, the stock of housing was almost the same in 1945 as in 1938.
141 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 72, OSS Bulletin, “The Situation in Italy,” Bern station, September 27, 1943.
142 TNA, AIR 8/777, D’Arcy Osborne to the Foreign Office, March 22, 1944.
143 TNA, AIR 19/215, Eden to Sinclair, May 15, 1944.
144 Ibid., Sinclair to Eden, May 17, 1944; CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, Evill to Churchill, May 6, 1944.
145 Origo, War in Val d’Orcia, 71–72, entry for August 1, 1944.
146 Corrado Di Pompeo, Più della fame e più dei bombardamenti: Diario dell’occupazione di Roma (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2009), 107, 112, entries for February 25 and March 25, 1944.
147 For a full account see Klinkhammer, L’occupazione tedesca, 318–66.
148 Baldoli, “Religion and Bombing in Italy,” 146–47.
149 Simone, Venti angeli sopra Roma, 301.
150 Anna Scattigno, “Il clero in Toscana durante il passaggio del fronte: Diari e cronache parrocchiali,” in Labanca, I bombardamenti aerei, 253–58.
151 Franco Manaresi, “I bombardamenti aerei di Bologna,” in Bersani and Monaco, Delenda Bononia, 47–48; Manaresi, “La protezione antiaerea,” in ibid., 40.
152 Manaresi, “La protezione antiaerea,” in Bersani and Monaco, Delenda Bononia, 34–35.
153 ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 106, memorandum for the Milan prefect, March 4, 1943, “Ricoveri pubblici.”
154 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 188–89.
155 TNA, AIR 20/5387, Province of Palermo, report for the month, May 1943; inspector of Air Raid Protection, Rome, “Report Concerning Air Attack on Rome 13 August 1943,” 13–14.
156 Cortesi, “Evacuation in Italy,” 65–66.
157 Lanari and Musso, “Un dramma mal calcolato,” 28–29.
158 Calculated from Mauro Maggiorani, “Uscire dalla città: Lo sfollamento,” in Brunella Dalla Casa and Alberto Preti, eds., Bologna in Guerra, 1940–1945 (Milan: Franco Angeli, 1995), 376.
159 Cortesi, “Evacuation in Italy,” 70–71.
160 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 144–49.
161 The only full account is George Southern, Poisonous Inferno: World War II Tragedy at Bari Harbour (Shrewsbury: Airlife, 2002).
162 NARA, RG 107, Box 139, HQ Army Service Forces for Lovett, “United States Chemical Warfare Committee: Periodic Report of Readiness for Chemical Warfare as of January 1 1945,” 114–15.
163 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 230, Brig. Gen. Cabell (Operations) to Eaker, “Employment of Chemical Weapons by the Allied Air Forces,” August 12, 1944; Operational Memorandum, “Chemical Warfare—Policy for Offensive Action,” August 11, 1944.
164 Coccoli, “I ‘fortilizi inespugnabili della civiltà italiana,’” 414; Marta Nezzo, “La protezione delle città d’arte,” in Labanca, I bombardamenti aerei, 202.
165 Nezzo, “La protezione delle città d’arte,” 205–6; Nezzo, “Defence of Works of Art,” 112–13.
166 Coccoli, “I ‘fortilizi inespugnabili della civiltà italiana,’” 415; Nezzo, “La protezione delle città d’arte,” 202–3.
167 Lynn Nicholas, The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1994), 260.
168 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 228–29.
169 Ibid., 236–38.
170 TNA, AIR 8/777, Osborne to the Foreign Office, March 22, 1944; Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 238–39.
171 Chianese, “Quando uscimmo dai rifugi,” 41, for figure on Sicily.
172 Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Morti e dispersi per cause belliche negli anni, 1940–45 (Rome, 1957), Table 2.8. For a discussion of the problems of assessing wartime casualties see Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, App., 260–62.
173 ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 22, Railway Commissariat, Palermo to Interior Ministry, April 1, 1943; TNA, FO 898/496, PWE, “Foglio volante,” July 5, 1943.
Chapter 6. Bombing Friends, Bombing Enemies: Germany’s New Order
1 Target: Germany; The U.S Army Air Forces’ Official Story of the VIII Bomber Command’s First Year over Europe (London: HMSO, 1944).
2 USSBS, “Over-All Report (European Theater),” Washington, DC, September 30, 1945, 2. The figures are France 21.8 percent, Other 7.5 percent, Austria, Hungary, Balkans 6.7 percent.
3 TNA, FO 898/313, memorandum by Ritchie Calder, PWE, “Bombing (military, economic and morale objectives),” 1–5.
4 TNA, AIR 19/217, War Cabinet, July 24, 1940, memorandum by the air minister, “Bombardment Policy in France.”
5 TNA, AIR 20/5831, AI to Air Ministry (Plans), August 17, 1940, encl. “Fringe Targets: Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France.”
6 Ibid., AI to Air Ministry (Plans), August 20, 1940, “France: Targets Within 30 Miles of Coast Dunkirk—Bordeaux”; February 13, 1941, “France: Fringe Targets Within 30 miles of the Coast of Occupied France”; February 6, 1941, “Belgium: Fringe Targets from North to South” (included three rated three-star); “Norway: Industrial Fringe Targets from North to South” (seven marked three-star).
7 Ibid., Air Marshal Leigh-Mallory to AI (AI9), July 1, 1941.
8 Ibid., “Information received from Lt. Commander Molenburg,” August 7, 1940.
9 TNA, FO 371/28541, British embassy (Bern) to French department (Foreign Office), July 31, 1941.
10 TNA, FO 898/312, Mr. Harman (Foreign Office) to Air Commodore Groves (PWE), February 14, 1942; Mr. Harman to Brigadier Brookes (PWE), February 18, 1942; PWE, “Extrait du journal clandestin belge ‘Le Peuple’ du mois d’avril 1942.”
11 Joris van Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution: Allied Strategic Bombing on the Netherlands in the Second World War” (Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, 2011), 18–19.
12 TNA, AIR 40/1720, Report from Military Intelligence Division, G2, MAAF, May 30, 1944, on “Centre de documentation des services spéciaux,” Annex 1, “Comparative Table of Bombing in France since 1940” (based on Bulletin de Sécurité Militaire, Direction Technique des Services Spéciaux, May 21, 1944).
13 TNA, FO 371/28541, French department, Foreign Office, to W. Mackenzie (Air Ministry), May 15, 1941; Foreign Office to Mackenzie, May 31, 1941; W. Law (MoI) to Foreign Office, May 7, 1941.
14 TNA, AIR 2/7503, Samuel Hoare (British ambassador to Spain) to the Foreign Office, September 27, 1941, encl. “Note verbale” from Le Havre Municipal Council; Foreign Office 371/28541, Hoare to Foreign Office, August 19, 1941, encl. “Note verbale” from the French embassy in Madrid. See also Claudia Baldoli and Andrew Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes: France and Italy Under Allied Air Attack, 1940–1945 (London: Continuum, 2012), 35.
15 FO 371/28541, Air Vice Marshal Medhurst to Mack (Foreign Office), October 17, 1941; AIR 2/7503, minute by DBOps for Foreign Office, October 25, 1941.
16 For a full account of German exploitation in 1940–41 see Hein Klemann and Sergei Kudryashov, Occupied Economies: An Economic History of Nazi-Occupied Europe, 1939–1945 (London: Berg, 2012), 75–88.
17 TNA, FO 371/28541, War Cabinet paper, “Air Policy—Attack on Factories in Occupied France,” November 6, 1941; AIR 19/217, War Cabinet conclusions, October 20, 1941. On RAF restrictions on bombing Paris, CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 1, Portal to Churchill, September 7, 1941.
18 Michael Stenton, Radio London and Resistance in Occupied Europe: British Political Warfare, 1939–1943 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 13, 88; Ben Pimlott, Hugh Dalton (London: Macmillan, 1985), 331–35, 343.
19 Stenton, Radio London and Resistance, 100.
20 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, AI, “Air Activity over Norway,” April 24, 1942.
21 TNA, FO 898/313, Ritchie Calder, “Notes for Morale Bombing,” August 18, 1941; Calder to Reginald Leeper, “RAF and Morale-Making in Occupied Countries,” August 25, 1941, 1–2; Calder memorandum, “Bombing (military, economic and morale objectives),” March 1942, 1, 4–5.
22 TNA, FO 898/437, PWE memorandum, “Why Drop Nickels?,” September 1943, 1.
23 Ibid., 4.
24 TNA, FO 898/319, PWE Report, April 14, 1942.
25 TNA, FO 898/319, directive for BBC European Service, “Plan for Propaganda (Occupied Countries) to Accompany RAF Attacks,” March 1942.
26 TNA, FO 898/234, T. G. Harman to Leeper (PWE), “Plan for Propaganda to Belgium,” February 26, 1941; Report on an interview with Mademoiselle Depuich [October 1941], 2; “Plan of Propaganda to Holland,” 6.
27 TNA, AIR 19/217, paper from the Air Ministry (Plans) for the War Cabinet, November 11, 1941; director of plans (Air Ministry) to Churchill, January 8, 1942; Norman Bottomley to acting C-in-C, Bomber Command, February 5, 1942; FO 371/28541, War Cabinet, November 6, 1941; FO 371/31999, Attlee to Churchill, January 8, 1942.
28 TNA, AIR 20/4768, Directorate of Bombing, “Incendiary Attacks in Occupied Countries,” November 13, 1941.
29 RAFM, Harris papers, H47, Bottomley to Harris, “Psychological Aspects of Bombing Policy,” April 14, 1942.
30 TNA, FO 898/313, PWE, “Progress Report No. 1,” March 1942.
31 TNA, AIR 19/217, Baker to Bottomley, March 4, 1942; casualty figures from Matt Perry, “Bombing Billancourt: Labour Agency and the Limitations of the Public Opinion Model of Wartime France,” Labour History Review 77 (2012): 49, and SHAA, Vincennes, Paris, 3D/48/Dossier 2, Direction de Défense Passive, Bulletin de Renseignements, March 30, 1942.
32 SHAA, 3D/112/Dossier 3, propagande anglo-saxonne, “Aux populations de la France occupée”; TNA, FO 898/319, P. C. Groves (PWE) to the BBC, February 6, 1942.
33 TNA, FO 898/319, memorandum by I. Black (PWE), “The Bombardment of Paris Factories,” March 5, 1942.
34 Ibid., U.S. embassy London to Sinclair, encl. message from Admiral Leahy, March 13, 1942; Eden to Sinclair, March 16, 1942.
35 Perry, “Bombing Billancourt,” 61–62.
36 TNA, FO 898/319, PWE Report, “The Bombing of French Factories,” April 10, 1942; PWE Report, “Evidence of Effect of RAF Bombing on Morale in Enemy-Occupied Territories,” April 14, 1942, 3.
37 TNA, AIR 19/217, Sir Samuel Hoare (Madrid) to Foreign Office, June 9, 1942; U.S. embassy (Bern) to secretary of state, June 22, 1942.
38 Lindsey Dodd and Andew Knapp, “‘How Many Frenchmen Did You Kill?’: British Bombing Policy towards France (1940–1945),” French History 22 (2008): 474–80.
39 Simon Kitson, “Criminals or Liberators? French Public Opinion and the Allied Bombings of France, 1940–1945,” in Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, and Richard Overy, eds., Bombings, States and Peoples in Western Europe, 1940–1945 (London: Continuum, 2011), 279–84.
40 TNA, AIR 8/428, Harris to Portal, April 7, 1942: “Real Blitzes as Opposed to Dock Bombing.”
41 TNA, AIR 9/187, Slessor to all air commands, “Bombardment Policy,” October 29, 1942.
42 TNA, AIR 19/217, Bottomley to Harris, January 14, 1943; Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 25–26; Dodd and Knapp, “‘How Many Frenchmen Did You Kill?,’” 479–80.
43 Arthur T. Harris, Bomber Offensive (London: Collins, 1947), 136–37.
44 TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID to assistant chief of naval staff, “U/Boat Bases—West Coast of France,” January 13, 1943; HQ Eighth Bomber Command to NID, February 18, 1943.
45 TNA, FO 898/319, PWE minute, “Campaign to the French Coastal Populations,” June 1, 1942; Peck to Baker, enclosing leaflet “Aux ouvriers français des ports de l’ouest,” June 1942.
46 TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID Report, “The Bombing of the U-Boat Bases,” March 11, 1943; NID, “Factual Statement on the Lorient Base and on Bombing Attacks.”
47 SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, Air Force Report, “Bombardement de l’Arsenal et de la ville de Lorient, Janvier–Mars 1943,” 6–7, 9.
48 TNA, FO 898/319, PWE, draft statement on the bombing of Lorient; Air Ministry (VCAS) to PWE, February 23, 1943.
49 TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID note, “Lorient”; AIR 19/218, Bottomley to Harris, April 6, 1943. See too Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany (London: HMSO, 1961), 2:96–97.
50 Stephen Flower, Barnes Wallis’ Bombs: Tallboy, Dambuster and Grand Slam (Stroud: Tempus, 2002), 124–25, 189–90, 192–95, 412.
51 TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID, French division, “France: Reaction to the Paris and Anvers Raids,” April 18, 1943.
52 TNA, FO 371/36038, Air Ministry to Foreign Office, December 30, 1942; Political Intelligence Dept, Foreign Office, “Avis no. 7,” BBC French Service, December 29, 1942.
53 Eddy Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France, 1940–1945 (Paris: Perrin, 2008), 159–61.
54 SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Bombardement du centre industriel de Boulogne-Billancourt, 4 Avril 1943”; BN, Défense Passive, Bulletin de Renseignements, March–May 1943, Table V.
55 TNA, FO 371/36038, minute by William Strang (Foreign Office), April 16, 1943; AIR 19/218, Massigli to Eden, April 16, 1943.
56 TNA, AIR 19/218, telegram JSM, Washington, DC, to Air Ministry, April 28, 1943; Sinclair to Eden, May 9, 1943; Air Vice Marshal Evill to Eaker, May 10, 1943; Sinclair to Eden, June 5, 1943.
57 Richard Overy, “The Luftwaffe and the European Economy, 1939–1945,” Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 55 (1979): 58–60.
58 Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France, 238–43.
59 Roger Freeman, The Mighty Eighth War Diary (London: Jane’s, 1981), 112, 115.
60 BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, October 1943, 8–11.
61 TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Military Intelligence Division Report from Centre de Documentation des Services Spéciaux, 7, 18.
62 SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Bombardement de l’usine Dunlop, 16 septembre, 1943,” 1.
63 Ibid., Armée de l’Air, “Bombardements aériens en territoire français: Avant propos: 1944” [May 1944], 1–3.
64 Ibid., “Bombardement de St. Étienne, 26 Mai 1944,” 7–8.
65 BN, Bulletin d’Information de la Défense Passive, May 1944, 7–8; SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Bombardement de la gare d’Avignon, 27 Mai, 25 Juin 1944,” 4.
66 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 51–53, 55.
67 Ibid., 92–93, 99.
68 BA-MA, RL 13/21, Luftschutz-Abteilung 15, Allgemeiner Erfahrungsbericht, April 30, 1942.
69 SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 2, Admiral Duplat to General Pintor (president of IAC), November 17, 1940; IAC to French delegation, April 1, 1941; IAC to French delegation, September 23, 1941.
70 Ibid., German Armistice Commission (Air Force) to French delegation, November 27, 1941.
71 Ibid., note for the French delegation at Wiesbaden, February 3, 1942; note from Direction des Services de l’Armistice to French delegation, June 3, 1942; Sécrétariat à l’Aviation, “Obscurissement de la zone non occupée,” August 6, 1942.
72 Ibid., memorandum of the German Armistice Commission to the French delegation, November 27, 1941, 1.
73 BA-MA, RL 7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, “Aufbau der französischen Heimatluftverteidigung,” May 1, 1943; Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, August 1, 1943.
74 SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA, CoS to the Interior Ministry, June 5, 1943, encl. memorandum from Air Fleet 3, February 16, 1943; Direction de la Défense Aérienne to SGDA, Bureau C, June 24, 1943.
75 BA-MA, RL 7/141, Air Fleet 3, Intelligence Report, May 1, 1943; SGDA to Secrétariat Général à la Défense Terrestre, April 27, 1943.
76 SHAA, 3D/279/Dossier 2, Commandant de Groupe de SAP, Lyon, February 20, 1943; Dossier 1, Defense Secretary to Minister of Industrial Production, “Service d’alerte,” October 1, 1943; SGDA, Bureau A, “Recapitulation des effectifs des formations de SAP,” September 13, 1943; SGDA to Director of Air Services, Northern Zone, September 20, 1943. The main centers in the south were at Lyon, Montpellier, Marseille, Limoges, and Toulouse; in the north at Paris, Tours, Dijon, Bordeaux, and Reims.
77 SHAA, 3D/43/Dossier 1, Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3 to SGDA, August 20, 1943; 3D/44/Dossier 1, Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3 to SGDA, July 4, 1943.
78 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 92–93.
79 SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA to Air Fleet 3, March 20, 1944; “Formations et effectifs réels, Défense Passive,” January 15, 1944; Ministry of Interior, “Instruction: Service de protection,” April 26, 1944.
80 BA-MA, RL 7/141, Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3, “Tätigkeitsbericht 1.2–15.3.1944,” March 19, 1944; SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA to Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3, March 20, 1944.
81 BA-MA, RL 13/24, Kriegstagebuch [War Diary] of LS-Abt. 34, entries for January 15, 16, and 29–30, 1943; SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Bombardement de l’Arsenal et de la ville de Lorient,” May 1944, 4–5, 8.
82 Michael Schmiedel, “Les Allemands et la défense passive en France: Le cas de Nantes,” in Michèle Battesti and Patrick Facon, eds., Les bombardements alliés sur la France durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Stratégies, bilans matériaux et humains (Paris: Ministère de la Défense, 2009), 53–55.
83 BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, October 1943, “L’Oeuvre accomplice par le Service Municipal de la ville de Nantes.”
84 Julia Torrie, “For Their Own Good”: Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939–1945 (New York: Berghahn, 2010), 115–17.
85 Ibid., 125–27.
86 SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SIPEG to Directorate of Passive Defense, January 26, 1944; Pierre Laval to all ministries, February 4, 1944, 1.
87 Michael Schmiedel, “Orchestrated Solidarity: The Allied Air War in France and the Development of Local and State-Organised Solidarity Movements,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 207–11.
88 Ibid., 211–13; Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 153–54; Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 150–51.
89 SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, Laval to all ministers, February 4, 1944, 1–2, 5; SIPEG to Directorate of Passive Defense, January 26, 1944.
90 Ibid., Laval to all ministers, 2–3; Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 159; Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 153–54.
91 Olivier Dumoulin, “A Comparative Approach to Newsreels and Bombing in the Second World War: Britain, France and Germany,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 302–3; Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 118–19.
92 Lindsey Dodd, “‘Relieving Sorrow and Misfortune’? State, Charity, Ideology and Aid in Bombed-Out France, 1940–1944,” in Baldoli, Knapp, and Overy, Bombing, States and Peoples, 83–85.
93 Ibid., 80–81, 86–87.
94 Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 135–37.
95 Stenton, Radio London and Resistance, 110.
96 TNA, FO 898/457, PWE, “Annual Dissemination of Leaflets by Aircraft and Balloon, 1939–1945.”
97 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 157, memorandum, CoS of Eighth Air Force, August 11, 1942; USAAF Adjutant-General to commander of Eighth Air Force, September 25, 1943.
98 Ibid., Box 157, Frank Kaufman, Chief (Leaflet Section) PWB, to Robert Bruce Lockhart (PWE), April 22, 1944, “Leaflet Production and Dissemination Program Between Now and D-Day”; Political Warfare Division (SHAEF), “The Leaflet Propaganda Front,” June 19, 1944, 3.
99 Philippe Boiry, Paris sous les bombes: Auteuil, septembre 1943 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2000), 37–38.
100 TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Military Intelligence Division Report, May 30, 1944, 1, 8. See too Kitson, “Criminals or Liberators?,” 285–88.
101 TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Military Intelligence Division Report, May 30, 1944, 13–15.
102 TNA, FO 371/41984, minute for Churchill from Desmond Morton, May 9, 1944; Direction Technique des Services Spéciaux, “Les bombardements alliés et leurs repercussions sur le moral français,” April 25, 1944.
103 Ibid., “France: Cardinals’ Message to British and U.S. Episcopates,” May 14, 1944; archbishop of Westminster to French cardinals, May 20, 1944.
104 Patrick Facon, “Les bombardements alliés sur la France durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Enjeux, thématiques et problématiques,” in Battesti and Facon, Les bombardements alliés, 13–14.
105 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 211–13.
106 TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF, Military Intelligence Division Report, May 30, 1944, 17–18.
107 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 210–11; Torrie, “For Their Own Good,” 113.
108 Jean-Marie Pontaut and Éric Pelletier, eds., Chronique d’une France occupée: Les rapports confidentiels de la gendarmerie, 1940–1945 (Neuilly-sur-Seine: Michel Lafon, 2008), 444, “Rapport du commandant de gendarmerie de la Charente,” July 1943.
109 BA-MA, RL 7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, August 1, 1943, 2; minute, July 14, 1943, “Überwachung der einzustehenden französischen Eisenbahnflakbatterien”; Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, September 2, 1943.
110 Ibid., Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, October 1, 1943; SHAA, 3D/43/Dossier 1, Sec. Gen. of Air Defense to Col. von Merhart, September 18, 1943; plenipotentiary of the German Air Force, Paris, to Col. Cornillon (Liaison Service), November 18, 1943.
111 BA-MA, RL 7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, August 1, 1943, 2.
112 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/AEAF/7, War Cabinet Defence Committee, April 5, 1944, 1.
113 TNA, AIR 40/1882, Bottomley to Portal, January 18, 1944; Bufton to Harris, January 14, 1944.
114 TNA, AIR 37/752, Harris memorandum for Leigh-Mallory, “The Employment of the Night Bomber Force in Connection with the Invasion of the Continent,” January 13, 1944.
115 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, Spaatz to Eisenhower [n.d. but April 1944].
116 Ibid., Arnold to Spaatz, April 24, 1944; see too Anderson to Spaatz, February 28, 1944, 3, “there be complete accord . . . as to the continuation of POINTBLANK.”
117 Walter W. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy: General Eisenhower’s Decision of March 25, 1944 (Aldershot: Gower, 1981), 13–14, 88–98; Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, 1904–19: An Autobiography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 220–24, 231–45.
118 Lord Arthur Tedder, With Prejudice: The War Memoirs of Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Tedder (London: Cassell, 1966), 520–25.
119 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, Portal to Churchill, March 29, 1944; UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/AEAF/7, Defence Committee minutes, April 5, 1944; Defence Committee minutes, April 13, 1944.
120 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 5, Portal to Churchill, April 13, 1944; UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/AEAF/7, Defence Committee, note by the secretary, “Bombing Policy”; Zuckerman memorandum, “Estimates of Civilian Casualties,” April 6, 1944.
121 Ibid., “Number of Fatal Casualties” [n.d. but April 1944]; “Casualties Among French Civilians Resulting from Rail Centre Attacks.”
122 Warren Kimball, ed., Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, vol. 3, Alliance Declining (London: Collins, 1984), 122–23, Churchill to Roosevelt, May 7, 1944, and 127, Roosevelt to Churchill, May 11, 1944; Tedder, With Prejudice, 531–32.
123 BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, April 1944, 16; Bulletin d’Information de la Défense Passive, August 1944, 18.
124 SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Tableau des projectiles explosifs lancés de janvier 1942 à aôut 1944.”
125 BN, Bulletin d’Information de la Défense Passive, May 1944, 7–8.
126 Details from ibid., June 1944, 1–3, 6–7, 10–11, 13.
127 SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, “Bombardement de St. Étienne, 26 mai 1944,” 4, 7–8; “Bombardement de Marseille, 27 mai 1944,” 1, 4–6; BN, Bulletin d’Information de la Défense Passive, “Bombardement de Saint-Étienne, 26 mai 1944,” 2–4; “Bombardement de Marseille, 27 mai 1944,” 2–5; statistics on human losses from Georges Ribeill and Yves Machefert-Tassin, Une saison en Enfer: Les bombardements des Alliés sur les rails français (1942–1945) (Migennes: 2004), 142–43.
128 TNA, FO 371/41984, memorandum from the French Commissariat for Foreign Affairs, “Allied Bombardment of Metropolitan France,” May 5, 1944; AIR 19/218, telegram for the War Cabinet from the British chargé d’affaires in Algiers, June 8, 1944. See too Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 233–35, for a fuller discussion of the views of the French Resistance.
129 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 73, deputy director OSS to the White House, May 17, 1944, encl. OSS Bulletin from Madrid.
130 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 29.
131 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 72, OSS Bulletin, February 8, 1944.
132 CCAC, Bufton papers, Bufton papers, 3/51, SHAEF Report, “The Effect of the Overlord Plan to Disrupt Enemy Rail Communications,” 1–2.
133 Georges Ribeill, “Aux prises avec les voies ferrées: Bombarder ou saboter? Un dilemme revisité,” in Battesti and Facon, Les bombardements alliés, 162.
134 TNA, AIR 37/719, Solly Zuckerman, “Times for Re-Establishment of Traffic through Bombed Rail Centres and Junctions and Across Bridges,” August 11, 1944, 2, and App. 9, 11; Ribeill and Machefert-Tassin, Une saison en Enfer, 138–39.
135 Ribeill and Machefert-Tassin, Une saison en Enfer, 153–55, 204; TNA, AIR 37/719, Railway Research Service, London, “German Military Movements in France and Belgium August 1944,” October 13, 1944, App. B.
136 Steve Darlow, Sledgehammers for Tintacks: Bomber Command Combats the V-1 Menace, 1943–1944 (London: Grub Street, 2002), 195–97.
137 Joachim Ludewig, Rückzug: The German Retreat from France, 1944 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2012), 23–24.
138 Maud Jarry, “Les bombardements des sites V en France,” in Battesti and Facon, Les bombardements alliés, 39–43.
139 TNA, AIR 40/1882, Report from Dewdney (RE8) to Bufton, April 15, 1944, “Crossbow—Large Sites.”
140 TNA, AIR 19/218, Sinclair to Portal, July 9, 1944.
141 TNA, AIR 40/1882, Air Marshal Colyer to director of intelligence, July 2, 1944; AI Report, “Examination of ‘Crossbow’ Sites in the Cherbourg Peninsula,” July 6, 1944.
142 Jean Quellien, “Les bombardements pendant la campagne de Normandie,” in Battesti and Facon, Les bombardements alliés, 61–68.
143 BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, June, July, and August 1944; Quellien, “Les bombardements,” 70–71.
144 TNA, AIR 37/761, AEAF HQ, “Observations of RAF Bomber Command’s Attack on Caen July 7 1944,” July 14, 1944, 3–5.
145 William Hitchcock, The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe (New York: Free Press, 2008), 32–33, 34, 44.
146 USMA, Bradley papers, War Diary, vol. 3, entry for July 24, 1944; LC, Spaatz papers, Box 84, USSTAF HQ, “Report of Investigation of Tactical Bombing, 25 July 1944,” August 14, 1944, 3–4.
147 USMA, Bradley papers, War Diary, vol. 3, entry for July 25, 1944. Eisenhower was reported as saying, “I don’t believe they [strategic bombers] can be used in support of ground troops.”
148 Ibid., memorandum by Bradley, “Combined Air and Ground Operations West of St. Lô on Tuesday 25 July 1944”; Bradley memorandum for the record, November 19, 1944.
149 Andrew Knapp, “The Destruction and Liberation of Le Havre in Modern Memory,” War in History 14 (2007): 477–82.
150 TNA, AIR 8/842, minute by Portal, January 7, 1945; Bottomley to Portal, January 9, 1945; Bottomley to Portal, January 25, 1945; Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France, 596–97.
151 Ibid., 597–98.
152 TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Intelligence Division Report, May 30, 1944, 14.
153 Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, gives a figure of 54,631 for overall deaths; Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France, 600–601, gives both the official figure (53,601) and the postwar estimate of 67,078, which seems to have been derived from the assertion that of the 133,000 civilian dead in France, half came from bombing. Danièle Voldman suggests a figure of at least 70,000, but does not explore how this figure is arrived at. See Voldman, “Les populations civiles, enjeux du bombardement des villes (1914–1945),” in Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker, Christian Ingrao, and Henry Rousso, eds., La violence de guerre, 1914–1945 (Paris: Éditions complexes, 2002), 161–62.
154 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 143, notes by Spaatz for Eisenhower, April 1944.
155 LC, Doolittle papers, Doolittle to Spaatz, August 10, 1944; Doolittle to Eisenhower, August 5, 1944.
156 TNA, AIR 19/218, Portal to Eaker, June 3, 1943.
157 CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 2, Stefan Zamoyski to Peirse, January 4, 1941, encl. letter from Polish Army HQ, December 30, 1940; Peirse to Sikorski, January 15, 1941; Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas About Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 191–92.
158 TNA, AIR 19/218, Eden to Sinclair, July 7, 1944; Sinclair to Eden, July 15, 1944; Sinclair to Vice CoS (RAF), July 26, 1944; Richard H. Levy, “The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited: A Critical Analysis,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 10 (1996): 268–69, 272–73. See too Michael Neufeld and Michael Berenbaum, eds., The Bombing of Auschwitz: Should the Allies Have Attempted It? (New York: St. Martin’s/United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2000), 263–64, 266–67, for the full correspondence.
159 TNA, AIR 19/218, Bottomley to ACAS (Intelligence), August 2, 1944; V. Cavendish-Bentinck (JIC) to Bottomley, August 13, 1944. See too Stuart Erdheim, “Could the Allies Have Bombed Auschwitz-Birkenau?,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 11 (1997): 131–37.
160 David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941–1945 (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 290–91, 295; Levy, “Bombing of Auschwitz,” 277–78. The McCloy letters of August 14 and November 18, 1944, are reproduced in Neufeld and Berenbaum, Bombing of Auschwitz, 274, 279–80.
161 TNA, AIR 19/218, Richard Law (Foreign Office) to Sinclair, September 1, 1944; Air Ministry to Spaatz, September 1, 1944.
162 Neufeld and Berenbaum, Bombing of Auschwitz, has fifteen papers arguing the case for or against.
163 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, Economic Warfare Division to Maj. Ballard, NAAF, “Strategic Target Priority List,” December 16, 1943. 
was number fourteen out of fifteen priority targets.
164 Joseph White, “Target Auschwitz: Historical and Hypothetical German Responses to Allied Attack,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 16 (2002): 58–59; Randall Rice, “Bombing Auschwitz: US 15th Air Force and the Military Aspects of a Possible Attack,” War in History 6 (1999): 205–30.
165 Norman Davies, Rising ’44: The Battle for Warsaw (London: Macmillan, 2003), 310–11.
166 TNA, AIR 8/1169, Portal to Slessor, August 5, 1944; Slessor to Portal, August 6, 1944; Slessor to Portal, August 9, 1944.
167 Ibid., AMSSO to British Mission, Moscow, August 8, 1944; Slessor to Portal, August 16, 1944. See too Halik Kochanski, The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the Poles in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2012), 419.
168 TNA, AIR 8/1169, Despatches from MAAF on Dropping Operations to Warsaw [n.d.]; Davies, Rising ’44, 311; Kochanski, Eagle Unbowed, 408–11. The successful drops included 4.5 million rounds of ammunition, 14,000 hand grenades, 250 antitank guns, and 1,000 Sten guns.
169 TNA, FO 898/151, PWE, “Rumanian Policy,” December 2, 1943; PWE minute, “Air Attack on Bucharest,” March 20, 1944.
170 C. O. Richardson, “French Plans for Allied Attacks on the Caucasus Oil Fields, January–April 1940,” French Historical Studies 8 (1973): 136–42; Ronald Cooke and Roy Nesbit, Target: Hitler’s Oil; Allied Attacks on German Oil Supplies, 1939–45 (London: William Kimber, 1985), 25–28, 37–38.
171 TNA, AIR 9/138, Air Ministry (Plans) for the CAS, “Appreciation on the Attack of the Russian Oil Industry,” April 2, 1940, 1–2; memorandum by Air Ministry (Plans), “Russian Oil Industry in the Caucasus,” May 30, 1940.
172 Ibid., “Memorandum on the Russian Petroleum Industry in the Caucasus,” App. E, “Calculation of Effort”; Cooke and Nesbit, Target: Hitler’s Oil, 49–51.
173 TNA, AIR 9/138, letter from E. A. Berthoud (British embassy, Cairo) to HQ RAF Middle East, June 13, 1941; Air Ministry (Plans) to HQ RAF Middle East, June 13, 1941; Air Ministry to British C-in-C (India) [n.d. but June 1941].
174 TNA, PREM 3/374/6, HQ RAF Middle East to Air Marshal Evill, June 14, 1942.
175 TNA, FO 898/176, PWB, Allied Forces HQ, “Psychological Warfare in the Mediterranean Theater,” August 31, 1945, 4–5, 15.
176 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 157, Col. Earl Thomson to director of intelligence, USSTAF Europe, February 1, 1944.
177 Ibid., Carl Spaatz article for Air Force Star, “Leaflets: An Important Weapon of Total War,” 5.
178 Ibid., Lt. Col. Lindsey Braxton to Spaatz [n.d. but February 1944]; Thomson to director of intelligence, USSTAF, February 1, 1944. For an example of whole bundles falling see TNA, FO 898/437, H. Knatchbull-Hugesson (British embassy, Ankara) to MoI, January 18, 1944, on Bulgarian leaflets.
179 TNA, FO 898/176, “Psychological Warfare in the Mediterranean Theater,” August 31, 1945, 14; FO 898/318, Dr. Vojacek to PWE, February 19, 1943; Dr. Vojacek to PWE, January 11, 1943.
180 TNA, FO 898/318, memorandum by Elizabeth Barker (PWE), “Probable Effects of Intensified Large-Scale Bombing of Densely Populated Areas in South-Eastern Europe,” January 26, 1944; PWE memorandum, “The Bombing of Romania, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Jugoslavia” [n.d.].
181 Ibid., PWE regional director (Czechoslovakia) to Calder, January 25, 1944.
182 TNA, FO 898/437, Wing Commander Burt-Andrews to Elizabeth Barker, December 10, 1943; FO 898/318, Barker memorandum, January 26, 1944, 2.
183 Webster and Frankland, Strategic Air Offensive, 4:508–9, 518.
184 TNA, AIR 20/3238, HQ RAF Middle East to Air Ministry, April 26, 1942; Air Ministry memorandum, “Tactical Appreciation on the Interruption of Axis Supplies of Oil from Romania,” December 21, 1942; Churchill to Portal, February 28, 1943; Portal to Churchill, March 9, 1943.
185 TNA, PREM 3/374/6, Churchill to Eden, March 10, 1943; Ismay to Churchill, May 18, 1943; Eisenhower to the CCS, May 25, 1943.
186 TNA, AIR 20/3238, Air Ministry to Mediterranean Air Command, May 31, 1943; Portal to Tedder, June 2, 1943.
187 Ibid., Eisenhower to CCS, May 25, 1943; PREM 3/374/6, minute by Ismay, June 19, 1943; Ismay to Churchill, June 23, 1943.
188 TNA, AIR 20/3238, Lt. Col. W. Forster to E. Berthoud (Cairo embassy), August 3, 1943.
189 Cooke and Nesbit, Target: Hitler’s Oil, 86–87.
190 TNA, AIR 20/3238, HQ RAF Middle East to Air Ministry, August 3, 1943; Report, “Bombing of Roumanian Oilfields,” August 9, 1943. For details of both raids see Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), 481–84; Cooke and Nesbit, Target: Hitler’s Oil, 89–96.
191 TNA, AIR 20/3238, H. Knatchbull-Hugesson to the Foreign Office, August 8, 1943.
192 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, HQ MAAF, “Notes on Strategic Bombardment Conference, Gibraltar, 8–10 November 1943,” November 11, 1943, 2; Richard G. Davis, Bombing the European Axis Powers: A Historical Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive, 1939–1945 (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2006), 322–24.
193 FDRL, Map Room Files, Box 136, Arnold to Spaatz, March 17, 1944; CoS to Wilson and Spaatz, March 22, 1944; AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, Air Ministry to Eaker, April 11, 1944.
194 Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik. Serie E, Band VIII: 1 Mai 1944 bis 8 Mai 1945 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979), 99–100, Joachim von Ribbentrop to Bucharest embassy, June 6, 1944.
195 Ibid., 114, OKW to Ambassador Ritter, June 7, 1944 (appointment from June 4, 1944).
196 TNA, AIR 23/7776, Fifteenth Air Force, “The Air Battle of Ploesti,” March 1945, 2, 6, 61–68, 81.
197 Cooke and Nesbit, Target: Hitler’s Oil, 105–6; AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, HQ MAAF, Operation Order for Mining the Danube, April 25, 1944.
198 Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik. Serie E, Band VIII, 383–84, Budapest embassy to the German Foreign Office, August 30, 1944; Karl-Heinz Frieser, ed., Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Band 8, Die Ostfront 1943/44 (Stuttgart: DVA, 2007), 782–800.
199 NARA, RG 107, Lovett papers, Box 28, Eaker to Robert Lovett, September 18, 1944; FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 82, Arnold to Roosevelt, September 22, 1944.
200 TNA, WO 204/1068, Air Ministry to Air Force HQ, Algiers, April 4, 1944.
201 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, HQ MAAF, Intelligence Section, “The Balkan Situation—Possibilities of Air Attack,” April 24, 1944, 13.
202 Ibid., Portal to Spaatz and Wilson, May 30, 1944.
203 NARA, RG 107, Box 28, Eaker to Lovett, September 18, 1944, 2–3; Davis, Bombing the European Axis Powers, 323.
204 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, HQ MAAF, Intelligence Section, “Priority List of Strategic Targets in MAAF Area,” July 31, 1944.
205 Ibid., Operational Instruction 111, March 21, 1945, 1–2.
206 Ibid., cipher message to all air staff, April 24, 1944. See too John Deane, The Strange Alliance: The Story of American Efforts at Wartime Co-operation with Russia (London: John Murray, 1947), 128–29.
207 TNA, AIR 20/3229, HQ MAAF to Air Ministry, November 9, 1944; JSM Washington to AMSSO (Moscow), November 19, 1944; Deane, Strange Alliance, 132–34.
208 Ibid., Spaatz to Arnold, November 29, 1944; U.S. Joint Chiefs to John Deane, Military Mission, Moscow; JPS memorandum, “Co-ordination of Allied Operations,” January 23, 1945.
209 FDRL, President’s Secretary’s Files, Box 82, Arnold to Roosevelt, September 17, 1944, 2.
210 Gordon Daniels, ed., A Guide to the Reports of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (London: Royal Historical Society, 1981), xxii; Wagenführ story in John K. Galbraith, A Life in Our Times: Memoirs (London: Andre Deutsch, 1981), 235–36.
211 See, e.g., Maria Bucur, Heroes and Victims: Remembering War in Twentieth-Century Romania (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 198–99, 212–13.
212 A. Korthals Altes, Luchtgevaar: Luchtaanvallen op Nederland, 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Sijthoff, 1984), 332.
213 Groninger Archieven, http://www.groningerarchieven.nl, “Groningers gedood door Engelse bommen.”
214 Altes, Luchtgevaar, 332.
215 TNA, FO 898/312, Foreign Office to Brigadier Brooks (PWE), February 14, 1942.
216 TNA, AIR 9/187, Slessor (ACAS) to all air commands, October 29, 1942, “Bombardment Policy,” 3.
217 Pieter Serrien, Tranen over Mortsel: De laatste getuigen over het zwaarste bombardement ooit in België (Antwerp: Standaard Uitgeverij, 2008), 12–19. See too the report in TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID, minute on bombing of Antwerp, April 20, 1943.
218 TNA, AIR 40/399, HQ VIII Bomber Command, ORS Report on April 5, 1943, operations, May 18, 1943.
219 Serrien, Tranen over Mortsel, 41, from an anonymous letter on the bombing.
220 TNA, FO 898/312, Foreign Office to director of political warfare (Operations), April 9, 1943.
221 TNA, AIR 19/218, Sinclair to Portal, April 30, 1943; Sinclair to Portal, May 3, 1943; Air Marshal Evill to Eaker, May 10, 1943, encl. App. A, “Targets in Occupied Countries Recommended for Attack by the Eighth Air Force”; Air Ministry to Harris, May 21, 1943.
222 Ibid., Portal to Eaker, June 3, 1943; Sinclair to Eden, June 5, 1943; Eden to Sinclair, June 11, 1943.
223 Ibid., draft leaflet, “An Urgent Warning to the Belgian People,” June 16, 1943; Bottomley to Harris and Eaker, June 25 and July 15, 1943; E. Michiels van Verduynen (Netherlands Foreign Office) to Sir Nevile Bland (British ambassador), June 23, 1943.
224 Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 35–36.
225 Altes, Luchtgevaar, 167–69.
226 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.20, Eaker to Portal, July 28, 1943; TNA, AIR 19/218, Portal to Eaker, July 25, 1943.
227 Pieter Serrien, “Bombardementen in België tijdens WOII,” http://pieterserrien.wordpress.com/2010/10/11.
228 Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 37–38.
229 B. A. Sijes, De Razzia van Rotterdam, 10–11 November 1944 (Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1951), 27–29.
230 On aircraft see Overy, “The Luftwaffe and the European Economy,” 58–60.
231 NARA, Film T901, Roll 2018, Reichsgruppe Industrie, “Anlagen zu den Ergebnissen der Industrieberichterstattung: Belgien, Oktober 1943”; ibid., “Niederlande, November 1943.”
232 Altes, Luchtgevaar, 334–36.
233 Netherlands Institute, Amsterdam, File 222, Haagsche Courant, May 30, 1944; Het Nieuws van den Dag, January 30, 1942.
234 TNA, FO 898/234, Stockholm Despatch to PWE, November 25, 1943 (based on information from a Dutch visitor to Sweden).
235 AFHRA, 519.12535, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, “Heavy Bombers: Targets in Low Countries.”
236 Serrien, “Bombardementen in België,” 2–3.
237 Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 39–44; Altes, Luchtgevaar, 189–98, 202–3. The figure of 800 dead includes those classified as missing, those who died of wounds, and a number of German personnel.
238 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 157, PWB chief, Leaflet Section, to Bruce Lockhart (PWE), April 22, 1944; Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 43–44.
239 Henrik Kristensen, Claus Kofoed, and Frank Weber, Vestallierede luftangreb: I Danmark under 2. Verdenskrig (Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 1988), 2:731–32.
240 Ibid., 2:742–43, 745–47, 748.
241 LC, Spaatz papers, Box 67, “Status of Combined Bomber Offensive: First Phase, April 1–August 31 [1943].”
242 TNA, AIR 2/8002, memorandum by the Norwegian minister of foreign affairs, December 1, 1943; Laurence Collier (Foreign Office) to Eden, November 26, 1943.
243 Ibid., Air Ministry, “Priority Targets in Norway” [n.d. but April 1944]; Norwegian high command, “Comments on Priority Targets in Norway,” May 31, 1944.
244 Ibid., Norwegian embassy to Air Ministry, November 2, 1944; Norwegian embassy to Collier, December 13, 1944; Maurice Dean (Air Ministry) to Foreign Office, January 11, 1945; on the raid, Martin Middlebrook and Chris Everitt, The Bomber Command War Diaries (Leicester: Midland Publishing, 2000), 609.
245 AFHRA, Disc MAAF 233, HQ MAAF, Intelligence Section, “V-Weapons,” March 27, 1945; Altes, Luchtgevaar, 302–3; TNA, AIR 37/999, SHAEF Air Defense Division, “An Account of the Continental Crossbow Operation 1944–1945,” 1, 13.
246 Serrien, “Bombardementen in België,” 3.
247 CCAC, Hodsoll papers, HDSL 5/4, Sir John Hodsoll, “Review of Civil Defence 1944,” 1, 13; TNA, AIR 37/999, SHAEF, “Continental Crossbow,” 24.
248 TNA, AIR 37/999, SHAEF, “Continental Crossbow,” 7–9, 19–20, 23.
249 Serrien, “Bombardementen in België,” 1, 3–4.
250 Altes, Luchtgevaar, 293; Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 45–47.
251 Altes, Luchtgevaar, 324; Esch, “Restrained Policy and Careless Execution,” 5. The figure of 8,000 was calculated by the Netherlands Institute of War Documentation, Amsterdam. Uncertainty over the exact figure derives partly from the difficulty in distinguishing between deaths from aerial bombing and deaths from artillery bombardment or ground strafing.
252 TNA, AIR 2/7894, Arthur Street (Air Ministry) to Orme Sargent (Foreign Office), “Draft Broadcast to the Dutch People,” March 21, 1945; E. Michiels van Verduynen (Dutch ambassador) to Eden, June 15, 1945.
253 Ibid., Street to Alexander Cadogan (Foreign Office), June 30, 1945.
254 Ibid., Mary C. van Pesch-Wittop Koning to King George VI, December 20, 1945.
255 Ibid., A. Rumbold (Foreign Office) to M. Low (Air Ministry), March 4, 1946; Low to Rumbold, March 18, 1946.
256 TNA, AIR 19/218, Sinclair to Eden, June 5, 1943; Eden to Sinclair, June 11, 1943.
Epilogue. Lessons Learned and Not Learned: Bombing into the Postwar World
1 Lord Tedder, “Air Power in War: The Lees Knowles Lectures,” Air Ministry pamphlet 235, September 1947, 13.
2 USMA, Lincoln papers, Box 5, File 5/2, presentation to the president by Maj. Gen. Lauris Norstad, October 29, 1946, “Postwar Military Establishment,” 11. Also 5, “future war” will be “truly total,” and 6, “We must prepare for total war.”
3 Ibid., File 5/2, “Industrial Mobilization,” lecture to the General Session of the National Industrial Conference Board, May 28, 1947.
4 Tedder, “Air Power in War,” 12–13; USMA, Lincoln papers, Box 5, File 5/2, address by Lauris Norstad, National War College, “U.S. Vital Strategic Interests,” November 22, 1946, 2 (emphasis in both originals).
5 RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/97, director of command and staff training to Bottomley, April 23, 1947; TNA, AIR 20/6361, Air Ministry Exercise Thunderbolt, vol. 1, August 1947, foreword by Lord Tedder; UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3/75, Exercise Thunderbolt, Joining Instructions, pt. 2.
6 UEA, Zuckerman archive, SZ/BBSU/3/75, Exercise Thunderbolt: Précis Folder, August 10–17, 1947; on the economy, TNA, AIR 20/6361, Air Ministry Exercise Thunderbolt, Presentation and Report, vol. 2, item 20: “Neither the day nor the night offensive succeeded in their strategic task of destroying the enemy’s economy.”
7 Tedder, “Air Power in War,” 13. See also TNA, AIR 20/6361, Exercise Thunderbolt, vol. 2, item 20, 130.
8 RAFM, Bottomley papers, B2318, “Thunderbolt Exercise: Note on the Potentialities of Biological Warfare,” August 13, 1947; note by Bottomley [n.d. but August 1947].
9 USMA, Lincoln papers, Box 5, File 5/2, Somervell address, “Industrial Mobilization,” 7.
10 Ibid., draft address by Gen. Wedemeyer to the National War College on “Strategy,” January 15, 1947, 4, 16, 21.
11 Ibid., Norstad, “Presentation Given to the President,” October 27, 1946, 1, 6.
12 Ibid., File 5/3, Maj. Gen. O. Weyland, Air Force–Civilian Seminar, Maxwell AFB, May 20, 1947.
13 Warren Kozak, LeMay: The Life and Wars of General Curtis LeMay (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2009), 277–81.
14 TNA, AIR 8/799, Air Ministry (Plans), memorandum for the Defence Committee, October 16, 1946, 1.
15 D. A. Rosenberg, “American Atomic Strategy and the Hydrogen Bomb Decision,” Journal of American History 66 (1979): 68.
16 TNA, DEFE 10/390, Joint Inter-Service Group for Study of All-Out Warfare (JIGSAW) papers, minutes of meeting February 23, 1960, 1–2; meeting June 2, 1960, 1; meeting August 4, 1960, 2.
17 Kenneth Hewitt, “Place Annihilation: Area Bombing and the Fate of Urban Places,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 73 (1983): 278–81.
18 On Britain see Nick Tiratsoo, “The Reconstruction of Blitzed British Cities, 1945–55: Myths and Reality,” Contemporary British History 14 (2000): 27–44; Stephen Essex and Mark Brayshay, “Boldness Diminished? The Post-War Battle to Replan a Bomb-Damaged Provincial City,” Urban History 35 (2008): 437–61.
19 Jeffry Diefendorf, In the Wake of War: The Reconstruction of German Cities after World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 14–15.
20 LSE archive, WILPF/2009/52/3, Mary Phillips (Women’s International League), “Germany Today: Report on Visit to British Zone May 9 to 27 1947,” 2–3, 5.
21 Leo Grebler, “Continuity in the Rebuilding of Bombed Cities in Western Europe,” American Journal of Sociology 61 (1956): 465–66.
22 LC, Eaker papers, Box I.30, Intelligence Section MAAF, “What Is the German Saying?,” recording “G.”
23 Fred Iklé, The Social Impact of Bomb Destruction (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), 213–15, 218–20.
24 Cited in Tiratsoo, “Reconstruction of Blitzed British Cities,” 28.
25 Grebler, “Continuity in Rebuilding,” 467–68.
26 Steven Brakman, Harry Garretsen, and Marc Schramm, “The Strategic Bombing of German Cities during World War II and Its Impact on City Growth,” Journal of Economic Geography 4 (2004): 205, 212.
27 Grebler, “Continuity in Rebuilding,” 467.
28 Nicola Lambourne, “The Reconstruction of the City’s Historic Monuments,” in Paul Addison and Jeremy Crang, eds., Firestorm: The Bombing of Dresden, 1945 (London: Pimlico, 2006), 151–52, 156–60.
29 Andreas Huyssen, “Air War Legacies: From Dresden to Baghdad,” in Bill Niven, ed., Germans as Victims (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006), 184–89; Peter Schneider, “Deutsche als Opfer? Über ein Tabu der Nachkriegsgeneration,” in Lothar Kettenacker, ed., Ein Volk von Opfern? Die neue Debatte um den Bombenkrieg, 1940–1945 (Berlin: Rohwolt, 2003), 158–65.
30 Mark Connelly and Stefan Goebel, “Zwischen Erinnerungspolitik und Erinnerungskonsum: Der Luftkrieg in Grossbritannien,” in Jörg Arnold, Dietmar Süss, and Malte Thiessen, eds., Luftkrieg: Erinnerungen in Deutschland und Europa (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2009), 55–60, 65.
31 I am grateful to Professor Dobrinka Parusheva for supplying me with information on the Bulgarian protests.