NOTES

1. Chakrabarti 2003, Singh 2004, Guha-Thakurta 2004, Lahiri 2005, Ray 2007, Pappu 2008.

2. Chakrabarti 2008a, 2008b.

3. Chakrabarti 2005.

4. Kivisild et al., 2000.

5. Sahoo et al., 2006.

6. Personal information from Professor S R Walimbe.

7. Sankhayan 2005.

8. Sonakia and Biswas 1998.

9. Patnaik et al., 2009, Chauhan and Patnaik 2008, Mulagapalli, Patnaik, and Verma 2007.

10. Mulagapalli, Patnaik, and Verma 2007.

11. Patnaik et al., 2009.

12. Patnaik and Chauhan 2008.

13. Agrawal and Kharakwal 2002.

14. Kumaravel et al., 2005.

15. Acharya 2003.

16. Paddayya et al., 2002.

17. Petraglia, Shipton, and Paddayya 2005.

18. Personal information from D K Medhi.

19. Chakrabarti 2006: 60–1.

20. Gunnell et al., 2006.

21. Petraglia et al., 2007.

22. Field, Petraglia, and Lahr 2007.

23. Tewari et al., 2002.

24. Ali and Rahman 2005.

25. Chakrabarti 2006: 97; Clarkson et al., 2009.

26. Sonawane 2008.

27. Yadavae et al., 2007.

28. For the details of Lohuradeva, Tewari et al., 2003.

29. For the details, Chakrabarti 2006.

30. Jan 2008.

31. Pramanik 2003–04.

32. Tewari 2004, for Mandi; for the rest, Chakrabarti 2006, Rao 2005–06.

33. Bala 2004.

34. Personal information in April 2008

35. Chakrabarti and Saini, in press.

36. Gupta et al., 2006.

37. Ali et al., 2008.

38. For these sites and the ones mentioned here, Chakrabarti 2006.

39. Satyamurthy 2007.

40. Tewari 2003.

41. Cherian, Selvakumar, and Shajan 2007.

42. Chakrabarti 2005, for the details.

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Notes

CHAPTER 1

1. Raychaudhuri, 1996, p. 1.

2. Sastri, 1935, p. 16.

3. The study of the socio-politics of the past is a component of the archaeology syllabi of a number of British universities, including Cambridge. The literature is ever-growing and relentless in exposing how much of the current interpretative structure of the ancient past has been influenced by various vested interests. This archaeological literature is separate from the literature generated by Edward Said’s classic treatise on Orientalism (Said, 1978) in the sense that it is much more oriented towards examination of specific issues. This began in the mid-1980s, with Trigger, 1984, Bernal, 1985 and Lowenthal, 1985 being three of the classic expositions of that period. It gained in strength after the holding of the first World Archaeological Congress in Southampton in 1986 (cf. Gathercole and Lowenthal 1990) and the relationship between archaeology and politics was the theme of a special issue of the Archaeological Review from Cambridge in 1986. Among the more recent publications one may mention Chakrabarti, 1997 in the Indian context and Whitelam, 1996 in the Israeli context, and for a more eclectic spread, Kohl and Fawcett, 1997, Graves-Brown, Jones and Gamble 1996, and Ucko, 1995 are representative.

4. Chakrabarti, 1997, pp. 207–8.

5. This section is based on Chakrabarti 1988a which refers to the earlier publications on the theme. There have been two biographies since then, one of Aurel Stein (Walker, 1995) and the other of Charles Masson (Whitteridge, 1986; also Possehl, 1990). A.C.L. Carlleyie’s collections in the museums in Britain led to a monograph with some biographical notes by Cook and Martingell, 1994. For John Marshall, Lahiri, 1997, for the beginning of a full-length study of Marshall on the basis of archival material. The history of the archaeology departments of ‘native’ states, such as those of Hyderabad, Bhopal, Kashmir, Baroda and Gwalior, remains unresearched. Another area which calls for detailed research is the emergence of a consciousness of the Indian past in the regional literature of different parts of the subcontinent.

6. Allchin and Chakrabarti, 1979, p. 69.

7. Ibid., p. 28.

8. Lahiri, 1997, p. 134.

9. For a study of the basic geography of the subcontinent in all its majesty, O.H.K. Spate, 1957 (2nd edn; the subsequent editions are with the co-authorship of A.T.A.L earmonth) is still unsurpassed. This can be followed up by monographs like R.L. Singh, 1971. Schwartzberg, 1992 provides an excellent historical atlas but without any significant archaeological component. On regional levels the monographs which have been published by the National Book Trust of India are useful, but on the whole we should not lose sight of that great repository of basic geographical information on India, die ‘District Gazetteers.’

10. The chapter on history in Spate, 1957; Subbarao, 1958; the chapter on geographical approaches in Chakrabarti, 1988b; Richards, 1933; Paddayya, 1994. Sankalia 1949 is a very fine example of working out ancient historical geography on the basis of inscriptions (in this case, of Gujarat) and generated more studies along this line. Holdich, 1910 provides a masterly geo-political study of the north-western frontier.

11. Subbarao, 1958. chs 6, 7, 8.

12. Singh, 1992, pp. 28–9.

13. Bose, 1961, introduction.

14. Ibid.

15. This section is based mostly on Cole, 1963.

16. Montague, 1964, p. 6.

17. P.P. Majumdar et al., 1990.

18. cf. reference to Aryan ethnicity and ideology in Allchin, 1995, p. 51.

19. Cust, 1887, p. 61.

20. For a summary of Risley’s scheme, Risley, 1903.

21. For Guha-Hutton scheme, Hutton, 1933.

22. For a summary of Grierson’s scheme, Grierson, 1909. Chakrabarti, 1997. pp. 86–151 provides a detailed critique of the interplay of race, language and culture in the study of Indian history.

CHAPTER 2

1. de Terra and Paterson, 1939.

2. Burkitt and Cammiade, 1930.

3. Krishnaswami, 1947, for a review of this period with full refernces.

4. Sankalia, 1963 provides the details of the literature of this period.

5. Sankalia, 1971.

6. R.V. Joshi, et al., 1974.

7. References which are relevant to this section will appear in the appropriate places below.

8. Sonakia, 1984, 1985; Kennedy, 1992; Kennedy et al., 1991; Badam et al., 1986; Badam and Sathe, 1995

9. The source of references to China and Java is Conroy, 1997 (for the Java dates, p. 300; for the Longgupo Finds, pp. 317–19); for the work done in the Indian Siwaliks and Ladakh, Verma, 1975, Verma and Srivastava, 1984, 1991; Tripathi et al., 1988; J.C. Sharma, 1977; Ranga Rao et al., 1988; on the Pakistani side, the most detailed work is: Rendell et al., 1989; but also, Rendell, 1984. On Bori, Korisettar et al., 1989; S. Mishra et al., 1995; Acharyya and Basu, 1993; Shane et al., 1995. Acharyya and Basu (1993) first suggested that the Bori tephra belonged to the Youngest Toba Tuff. This conclusion has been supported on the basis of more detailed geochemical evidence by Shane et al., 1995. It should be clear to anybody familiar with the literature concerned that since 1975 the geologists of the Geological Survey of India, especially B.C. Verma, C. Tripathi and others, have been claiming the Lower Pleistocene association for some artefacts they found in the Siwaliks and Ladakh. In this sense the discovery made by Rendell and others in the Potwar plateau took place later than the one made in the Indian Siwaliks. Although the archaeologists of the Deccan College, Pune, regularly cite the British work in the Potwar plateau, till now they have continued to show remarkable indifference to the earlier work of the Geological Survey of India. In none of the articles on palaeolithic India in the recent issues of, Man and Environment have I come across any reference to the significance of Verma’s and others’ work or any reference to A. Ranga Rao’s dating of Uttarbaini.

10. Williams and Clarke, 1995, p. 284.

11. Ghosh, 1973.

12. Sankalia, 1974.

13. Rendell et al., 1989. p. 28.

14. Somayajulu, 1990.

15. Agrawal, 1992, p. 98.

16. In addition to Rendell, 1984 and Rendell, et al., 1989 mentioned earlier, the recent work in the Potwar (the correct version is ‘Potohar’ but ‘Potwar’ has long been in use) plateau is accessed through the following publications: Dennell, et al., 1988; Rendell and Dennell, 1985; Dennell, 1989; Dennell et al. 1990; Dennell, 1991; Dennell and Rendell, 1991; Dennell et al., 1993. For the Sanghaocave, Dani, 1964, Allchin and Allchin, 1968. pp. 71–4; Ranere, 1982; Tusa, 1986, For Sind, B. Allchin, 1976; Biagi and Cremaschi, 1988.

17. For the Kashmir upper palaeolithic, R.K. Pant et al., 1982; for Jammu, Mohapatra, 1974; for Kangra, Lai, 1956; also, the relevant section in Sankalia, 1974.

18. For work in the Berach and Luni basins, Misra, 1967; for work in the Ajmer, Luni valley and Jaisalmer sectors, B. Allchin et al., 1978; for work in the Jayal, Didwana, Singi Talav, etc. sectors, Misra et al., 1980; Misra, et al., 1982; Misra, 1995; Raghavan et al., 1989; Gaillard et al., 1986; for work in the Aravalli sector near Delhi. Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1987.

19. For Gujarat as a whole, the best introduction is still Sankalia, 1974; also, the articles on Gujarat in QEGI, pp. 246–81; Marathe, 1981; Baskaran et al., 1986.

20. Some of the important references in the context of Madhya Pradesh are: de Terra and Paterson, 1939; Sankalia, 1974; Sen and Ghosh, 1963; Khatri, 1961; Misra, 1985; Mishra and Rajaguru, 1993; Misra et al., 1990; Joshi, 1961; Badam, 1982; Clark and Williams, 1990; Jacobson, 1985; Sharma and Clark, 1983; Kenoyer et al., 1983; Supekar, 1985; Ahmad, 1984; Armand, 1983; Pandey, 1987.

21. On Maharashtra Sankalia, 1974 is still a major source and may be supplemented by the following: Guzder, 1980; Corvinus, 1967, 1981–83; Mishra, 1995; Goudeller and Korisettar, 1993; Rajaguru and Korisettar, 1987; R.S. Pappu, 1995; Sali, 1989; Joshi and Bopardikar, 1972.

22. Korisettar et al., 1993, p. 13. On Karnataka in general: Joshi, 1955; R.S. Pappu, 1974; R.S. Pappu and S. Deo, 1994; Paddayya, 1982; Paddayya and Petraglia, 1995; Kale et al., 1986.

23. On Kerala, Rajendran, 1989; but comments in Marathe, 1995, p. 406.

24. On Tamil Nadu, in addition to Krishnaswamy, 1947, and Sankalia, 1974, S. Pappu, 1996.

25. On Andhra, in addition to Sankalia, 1974; Murty, 1968, 1974; Raju, 1988; K.T. Reddy, 1994.

26. For Orissa, Bose and Sen, 1948; Mohapatra, 1962; for a review of more recent publications, Basa, 1994.

27. For a review of the literature and data on West Bengal, Chakrabarti, 1993, 1998.

28. For the Chhotanagpur plateau section of Bihar, Narayan, 1996; Chakrabarti, 1993; A.K. Ghosh, 1970; for the Kharagpur hills near Munger, Pant and Jayasawal, 1991.

29. P.C. Pant, 1982; G.R. Sharma, 1973; Williams and Clarke, 1995; Krishnaswami and Soundara Rajan, 1951.

30. For a critical review of the north-eastern evidence, Chakrabarti, 1998, pp. 1–18; also. Chakrabarti, 1992, ch. 2.

31. Corvinus, 1995.

32. The literature and the evidence are well surveyed in S. Mishra, 1995; also, Kshirsagar, 1993.

33. Misra, 1989, p. 20.

34. Paddayya, 1982, p. 20.

35. For Paisra, Pant and Jayasawal, 1991, p. 48.

36. Misra, 1985, pp. 37–9.

37. Kenoyer et al., 1983.

38. For ‘site 55’, Rendell, Dennell and Halim, 1989; for Andhra, Raju, 1988.

39. Murty, 1985.

40. Vishnu-Mittre, 1989.

41. Bednarik, 1993 provides the most comprehensive discussion, with references.

CHAPTER 3

1. For Patne, Sali, 1989.

2. For the teri sites. Gardner, 1995; Soundara Rajan, 1989.

3. Williams and Clarke, 1995.

4. K. Thomas, 1997.

5. Cook and Martingell, 1994, p. 11.

6. For Birbhanpur, Lal, 1958; for Paruldanga, Chakrabarti, 1993, p. 178.

7. Meher-Homji, 1980; Singh et al., 1974.

8. Singh, Wasson and Agrawal, 1990.

9. Nigam and Hashimi, 1995; Caratini et al., 1994.

10. Possehl, 1994.

11. For Bagor, Misra, 1973; for Adamgarh, Joshi, 1989; for Baghor II, Sharma and Clark, 1983; for Sarai Nahar Rai, G.R. Sharma, 1973; for Mahadaha and Chopani Mando, G.R. Sharma et al., 1980; for Damdama, R.K. Varma et al., 1985; Pal, 1992, 1994; Kajale, 1990. For a review of the Ganga valley mesolithic, U.C. Chattopadhyay, 1996. Two volumes on skeletal remains are important: Kennedy, Lovell and Burrow, 1986; Kennedy et al., 1992. For Paisra, Pant and Jayaswal, 1991, ch. 7. For surveys of Mesolithic remains in particular areas, R.K. Varma, 1986; Cooper, 1998. For the ‘heavy duty component’ of the mesolithic, Ota, 1986.

12. V. Smith, 1906.

13. Jacobson, 1980.

14. Mathpal, 1984.

15. On rock-art in general in India, Neumayer, 1983, 1993; Brook and Wakankar, 1976.

CHAPTER 4

1. Jarrige and Meadow, 1980; Jarrige and Lechevallier, 1979; Jarrige, 1981; Meadow, 1981, 1996; Constantini, 1984; Lechevallier, 1984; Lechevallier and Quivron, 1985; Samzun and Sellier, 1985; Lukacs, 1985; Thibault, 1989, 1992; Sellier, 1992; Saizieu and Bouquillon, 1994.

2. Sellier, 1992.

3. Fairservis, 1956.

4. Ross, 1946, Fairservis, 1959.

5. de Cardi, 1965.

6. Hargreaves, 1929.

7. Possehl, 1986; Casal, 1966; for Edith Shahr complex, Fairservis, 1971; Stein, 1929.

8. Dales, 1979.

9. Besenval, 1994; Stein, 1931.

10. Allchin and Knox, 1981; Allchin et al., 1986; Khan, Knox and Thomas, 1991.

11. Dani, 1970–71; Durrani, 1988; Durrani, Ali and Erdosy, 1991; T. Ali, 1994; Asthana, 1985.

12. Flam, 1993; Casal, 1964.

13. Halim, 1970–71, 1972.

14. Mughal, 1974, 1990; F.A. Khan, 1965.

15. Dales, 1992.

16. Lal, 1979.

17. Khatri and Acharya, 1994–95.

18. Bisht, 1982, 1987.

19. P.L. Chakravarty and V. Kumar, 1993.

20. Bisht, 1997.

21. Chakrabarti, 1995.

CHAPTER 5

1. Discussion in Chakrabarti, 1995, pp. 106–11; for north Afghanistan, Francfort, 1989; for Baluchistan, the two monographs by Stein (1929, 1931) and specifically for the Bolan pass area, Jarrige, 1989; for the Makran coast, Dales, 1962; Besenval, 1994; for the Son Miani Bay. Dales, 1979; for the Gomal valley, Dani, 1970–1; for Sind, the basic report is still Majumdar, 1934 to be supplemented by Flam, 1986; for Cholistan, Mughal, 1992, 1997; for the Punjab plains in Pakistan, Mughal, 1997; also, Fentress, 1982; for the Indo-Gangetic divide, the distribution maps and site-lists in Joshi, Bala and Ram, 1984; for Gujarat, Rao, 1991 (only the Gujarat section).

2. Cited in Chakrabarti, 1995, pp. 87–8.

3. Cited in Ibid., 1995, p. 51.

4. Cited in Ibid., 1995, pp. 49–50.

5. Cheesman, 1997, pp. 25ff; for the discussion on the pre-industrial canal system, pp. 19–29.

6. Mohenjodaro: Bukhari, 1995; Marshall, 1931; Mackay, 1938; Dales, 1965; Dales and Kenoyer. 1986; Jansen, 1987; for Wheeler’s work: Wheeler, 1968 (in specific for the result of 1922–27 work, Marshall 1931; for the result of 1927–31 work, Mackay 1938; for 1920–21 work, Banerji cited in Marshall); for Chanhudaro: Mackay, 1943; for Harappa: Vats, 1940; Wheeler, 1947; Kenoyer, 1992; for Kalibangan: Lai, 1979; for Banawali: Bisht, 1982, 1987; for Lothal: Rao, 1979; for Surkotada: Joshi, 1990; for Dholavira: Bisht, 1991, 1996, 1997; for Kuntasi: Dhavalikar, Raval and Chitalwala, 1996. For a general discussion, Chakrabarti, 1995, ch. 3.

7. On scripts, Possehl, 1996a is a comprehensive introduction; for a corpus of the sources. Joshi and Parpola, 1987; Mustafa and Parpola, 1991; also, Mahadevan, 1977. On pottery, an easy and clear introduction to morphology, Nigam, 1979; as an example of scientific study, Krishnan, 1992; for kilns and other issues, excavation reports. For lithics, Kenoyer, 1984; Biagi et al., 1995; Negrino and Stamini, 1995. For metallurgy, Lahiri, 1995; Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1996. On beads, Mackay, 1937; B. Allchin, 1979; Kenoyer, Vidale and Bhan, 1991. For steatite micro-beads, Hegde, Karanth and Sychanthavong, 1982; on gold jewellery, Nanda, 1992, pp. 24–36; on the ‘stone ware bangles’, Halim and Vidale, 1984; for a general discussion, Kenoyer, 1998, ch. 8; also, Kenoyer, 1997. For shell-working, Hegde et al., 1990. Also, some relevant essays in Meadow, 1991.

8. Hemmy in Mackay, 1938; also, Mainkar, 1984.

9. Vij, 1984, p. 124.

10. For animal use, a convenient analysis with sources, Sahu, 1988, ch. 7; for crop lists, no comprehensive analysis is available, but among the good introductions are Vishnu-Mittre and Savithri, 1982 and K.S. Saraswat’s analysis of the Rohira, Mahorana, Sanghol and Hulas material, cf. Indian Archaeology—A Review1983–84 onwards. For the presence of dried fish from the Arabian Sea coast at Harappa, Belcher, 1994. For shells and molluses, Deshpande-Mukherjee, 1998.

11. On internal trade, Lahiri, 1992, ch. 3 (the quotation from p. 142); on the external trade, Chakrabarti, 1990; for a somewhat different point of view. Possehl, 1996b.

12. The best discussion is still that by Marshall in Marshall, 1931.

13. Marshall, 1931 is still the best source, supplemented by Allchin, 1992; for a specimen from Dholavira, Chengappa, 1998.

14. Dutta, 1984, pp. 63ff; also, Hemphill, Lukacs and Kennedy, 1991.

15. For chronology, Chakrabarti, 1995, pp. 111–15.

16. Chakrabarti, 1995, p. 123; also, Ratnagar, 1991.

17. Ibid., pp. 129–40, for a review with sources.

18. Mackay, 1938, p. 6.

19. Kenoyer, 1993, p. 187.

20. Shaffer, 1986, p. 223.

21. Chakrabarti, 1995. p. 140.

CHAPTER 6

1. For Koldihawa, A. Ghosh, 1989, vol. I, pp. 232–3; for Kunjhun, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1981–82, pp. 43–4.

2. For Pachrukhi, unpublished Ph.D dissertation (Cambridge University, 1987–88) by Ajay Pratap; discussed in Chakrabarti, 1993, pp. 111–12; for Kuchai, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1961–62, p. 36; comments in Chakrabarti, 1993, p. 201.

3. The Ghaligai sequence in Stacul, 1969; the starting points of the literature on the Gandhara Grave Culture are Dani, 1967, Antonini and Stacul, 1972 and the corpus of articles published in East and West since the 1960s; cf. Stacul, 1993, 1995.

4. For Gufkral, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1980–81; for Burzahom, Kaw, 1979; for Ladakh. Ota, 1993; for Almorah, Agrawal et al., 1995.

5. For Ganeshwar, in addition to Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1987–88, pp. 101–02. Agrawala and Kumar, 1982; comments in Chakrabarti and Lahiri. 1996, pp. 193–4. For Ahar, Sankalia et al., 1969; for Balathal, Misra, 1997; Misra et al., 1995 and the series of articles in Man and Environment, 21 (1), 1996, pp. 91–116. However, the premise that Balathal was a pottery trading centre is farfetched. For an excellent analysis of the Ahar culture, Hooja, 1988.

6. Ansari and Dhavalikar, 1975; Sankalia et al., 1958, 1971; Wakankar, 1982; Banerjee, 1986; Lahiri, 1992, 161–70.

7. The two primary excavation reports in the context of Maharashtra are Sali, 1986 and Dhavalikar, Sankalia and Ansari, 1988. There is a plethora of reports and writings on the Maharashtra sites, among which Sankalia et al., 1960 on Nevasa certainly deserves notice. Also, Lahiri, 1992, pp. 171–81; Dhavalikar, 1988 provides the best general introduction. On Tuljapur Garni, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1984–85. pp. 48–50 and on Bhawar, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1992–93, pp. 55–62. On the Vidarbha megaliths, cf. Deo, 1970, 1973.

8. Among the representative writings on this zone, an excerpt from Foote’s writing, Allchin and Chakrabarti, 1979, pp. 82–6; Wheeler, 1948; F.R. Allchin, 1960, 1961, 1963; Paddayya, 1973; Paddayya et al, 1995; Devaraj et al. 1995; Mujumdar and Rajaguru, 1966; Rami Reddi, 1978; M.S.N. Rao, 1971, M.S.N. Rao and Malhotra, 1965; M.S.N. Rao and Nagaraju, 1974; Thapar, 1957. On the painted pottery tradition of Andhra, the main excavated site is Ramapuram, cf. Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1981–82, 1982–83. The best introduction to the south Indian megalithic tradition is U.S. Moorti, 1984.

9. On Golbai Sasan, the most important excavated neolithic–chalcolithic site to date is Orissa, Indian Archaeology—A Review, 1991–92, pp. 86–7. For the north-eastern region, Sankalia, 1974, pp. 283ff. (as an introduction to the literature); comments in Chakrabarti, 1998. On West Bengal. Chakrabarti et al. 1993 for black-and-red ware sites; also, Praina Samiksha (Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Govt, of West Bengal), nos. 2 and 3. On Bihar, B.P. Singh, 1990; Varma, 1971; A.K. Prasad, 1990.

10. On eastern Uttar Pradesh, P. Singh, 1994 is a work of pioneering significance, followed by work at other sites (cf. Imlidih, P. Singh, 1992–93, 1993–94) For work al Raja-Nal-ka-Tua, Tewari and Srivastava, 1996–97. On western Uttar Pradesh, Gaur, 1983, 1995 and Sahi, 1993 update all that was written earlier. Also, V. Tripathi, 1976 and M. Lai, 1984. For Bhagawanpura, Joshi, 1993; on the Harappans in the Ganga plain, Dikshit, 1984. On the ‘copper hoards’, Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1996, pp. 77–90; Yule, 1985. On iron, Chakrabarti, 1992; Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1994.

11. Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1996, pp. 84–5.

12. Joshi, 1993. p. 8.

CHAPTER 7

1. The beginning of writing in India has been well discussed from the Indian point of view by R.B. Pandey, 1952; for the opinions of D.C. Sircar and A.H. Dani. D.C. Sircar, 1965; Dani, 1963; for the Anuradhapura evidence, Coningham and Allchin, 1995, pp. 176–9; for our position on the date of the Buddha, Chakrabarti, 1997, pp. 183–8; for A.K. Narain’s clinching argument, Narain, 1993; for the early date of the NBP at Sringaverapura—c. 750 bc, according to the Thermoluminescent datings by A.K. Singhvi–Agrawal and Yadav, 1995, pp. 116–17; for Marshall’s opinion on the date of the NBP at Bhita, Marshall, 1911–12.

2. For discussions on the Parana texts, Rocher, 1986; Hazra, 1987 (original edition in 1940); the discussion on political history is based on Raychaudhuri, 1996; for a generalized account of economic history of the ‘Buddhist period’, Rhys Davids, 1901; for a recent perspective on India’s Roman and south-east Asiatic trade, Ray and Salles, 1996, Cimino, 1994.

3. This section is based on Chakrabarti, 1995, ch. 5, which contains the necessary references. The section on the Kaveri delta is based on Rajan, 1997 and also on the basis of an unpublished paper prepared by him on ‘early historic archaeology of Tamil Nadu.’ For south India in general, Champakalakshmi, 1996. Further, a few new and important reports: Howell, 1995; V. Begley et al., 1996; Soundara Rajan. 1994; K.M. Srivastava, 1996.

4. For the distribution and types of Asokan inscriptions, Allchin and Norman, 1985. Since then there have been two other finds: fragment of Pillar Edict 6 from Buner or the area of Takht-i-Bahi in the NWFP, and fragments of Rock Edict 12 and Rock Edict 14 and a separate ‘Kalinga edict’ replacing Rock Edict 13 from Sannati in Gulbarga district, Andhra Pradesh; cf. Norman, 1988, 1991. Specific mention should be made of the usefulness of Hultzsch, 1925. For the immediately post-Mauryan inscriptions, Luders, 1963 serves as a good introduction.

5. For the inscriptions of the early centuries ad, the examples which have been used here are Kielhom, 1905–6 and Senart, 1905–6. For early Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions, Mahalingam, 1967 provides a starting point. A very important addition to the corpus of Kushana inscriptions is Sims-Williams and Cribb, 1995–96. For the Kushana inscription mentioned in our text. Sircar, 1965.

6. P.L. Gupta, 1969, pp. 9–11; for a more recent attempt. Rajgor 1998.

7. P.L. Gupta, 1969, pp. 16–17.

8. Rajan, n.d. A clearly written and useful introduction to the literature on -ancient Indian coinage is Goyal, 1995. The primary source is ‘catalogues’ of various collections; cf. Allan, 1936. As examples of modern studies one may mention A. Jha, 1991; P.L. Gupta and A. Jha, 1987; Bopearachchi and A. Rahman, 1995.

9. The most detailed discussion on the Mauryan sculptural tradition is by Gupta, 1979. On Bharhut, Bodh Gaya, Sanchi, the original reports of Cunningham, 1879, 1892 and Marshall and Foucher 1983 (reprint). On Amaravati, Knox, 1992 and Sivaramamurti, 1942. On the west Indian rock-cut caves, Fergusson and Burgess. 1880, and for the Bhuvaneshwar caves, Ghosh, 1974, pp. 73–84. On Gandhara, Zwalf, 1996; Swati, 1997. On Mathura, R.C. Sharma, 1984; Asthana, 1990. For a summary of the Indian textual evidence on painting, Sivaramamurti, 1970, pp. 1–21; for Sunga period paintings on mica sheets, V. Mishra, 1961; for Ajanta, A. Ghosh, 1967 and for Bagh caves, Marshall et al., 1927. The best general introduction to Indian art is by A.K. Coomaraswamy, 1965 (reprint).

10. On early Buddhist architecture, Sarkar, 1966 and D. Mitra 1971; for a historical overview, Chakrabarti, 1995. On temples, K. Deva, 1995.

CHAPTER 8

1. Basak, 1997.

2. Chakrabarti et al., 1996.

3. Chakrabarti et al., 1995.

4. Kumar, 1988.

5. Mehra and Arora, 1985. In the same context, Vishnu-Mittre, 1985.

6. For some relevant early notices of pre-industrial mining, Allchin and Chakrabarti, 1997. pp. 465–81.

7. Craddock, 1997, p. 117.

8. Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1996. p. 201.

9. Srinivasan and Glover, 1997.

10. Mac Dowall, 1994.

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