CHAPTER ONE
1. Two good histories of ancient doubt, both of which informed the present chapter, are James Thrower, The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World (The Hague: Mouton, 1980), 197–200; and A. B. Drachmann, Atheism in Pagan Antiquity (London: Ares, 1922).
2. John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (London: Black, 1930), 14.
3. Burnet, 49–50.
4. Heraclitus B 5, as cited in Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985), 309.
5. As cited in Burkert, 181.
6. Burkert, 315.
7. Burkert, 311.
8. Xenophanes, “Fragment 11,” in G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957), 168.
9. Xenophanes, “Fragment 15,” in Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, 168–169.
10. Xenophanes, “Fragment 16,” in Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, 168–169.
11. Burkert, 314.
12. Plato, Phaedra, in The Collected Dialogues, ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1961), 94–95.
13. Aristophanes, The Clouds, William Arrowsmith, trans. (New York: Mentor, 1962), 43–44.
14. Michael Morgan, “Plato and Greek Religion,” in The Cambridge Companion to Plato, ed. Richard Kraut (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992), 227–247.
15. Plato, The Laws X, in The Collected Dialogues, 1445.
16. Plato, The Laws XII:1512.
17. Plato, The Laws X:1446.
18. Plato, The Laws XII:1512.
19. Etienne Gilson, God and Philosophy (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1941, 2002), 26.
20. Constance C. Meinwald, “Good-bye to the Third Man,” in Companion to Plato, ed. Kraut, 365–396, esp. 367.
21. Plato, Timaeus and Critias, Desmond Lee, trans. (London: Penguin Classics, 1977), 123.
22. Sextus Empiricus, Selections from the Major Writings on Scepticism, Man, and God, ed. Philip P. Hallie and trans. Sanford G. Etheridge (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1985), 189.
23. For a discussion of this, see Edward Grant, God and Reason in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001), 160–164.
24. As cited in Jonathan Barnes, “Metaphysics,” in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995), 104.
25. See A. A. Long, Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986); and Luther H. Martin, Hellenistic Religions: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987).
26. Lucius Apuleius, The Golden Ass (New York: Horace Liveright, 1927), 258.
27. Drachmann, 109.
28. Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Robert Drew Hicks, trans. (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1972), 651.
29. Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” 649–650.
30. Epicurus, “Letter to Pythocles,” in Diogenes Laertius, 623.
31. Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” 649.
32. Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” 659.
33. Epicurus, “Letter to Herodotus,” in Diogenes Laertius, 598–599.
34. On Hellenistic Skepticism, see introductory chapters in Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1979); and introduction by Philip P. Hallie to Sextus Empiricus, Selections.
CHAPTER TWO
1. The scholarship and judgments found in three superb works on Hellenistic Jews much informed this section: Elias J. Bickerman, The Jews in the Greek Age (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988); Arnaldo Momigliano, Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1971); and Menahem Stern, “The Period of the Second Temple,” in A History of the Jewish People, ed. Hayim Ben-Sasson (Cambridge: Harvard Univ Press., 1976), 183–306.
2. Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins, 1988), 147.
3. Bickerman, 254.
4. Bickerman, 92–93.
5. Bickerman, 254–256.
6. Maccabees III 1:2.
7. Momigliano, 92–93.
8. Momigliano, 93.
9. Stern, in Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, 195–204.
10. Maccabees II 13.
11. As cited in Johnson, 100.
12. Ben Zion Wacholder, Eupolemus: A Study of Judaeo-Greek Literature (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1974). See also Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine During the Early Hellenistic Period, trans. John Bowden, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974).
13. Bickerman, 161–176.
14. Bickerman, 93; Maccabees II 8:20.
15. Sukkot 56b. See Johnson, 103. In Genesis Rabbi 99:3, the altar is referred to as a wolf and the commentary is that the altar “seizes” its sacrifices. (Correspondence with Rabbi Eric A. Silver.)
16. Johnson, 102–105.
17. Johnson, 103.
18. Bickerman, 226, 227.
19. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities (Ant. Jud.) 12.260, as cited in Momigliano, 108–109.
20. Maccabees I 13–43 to 13–58.
21. Maccabees II 4:40.
22. Johnson, 99.
23. Momigliano, 91.
24. Johnson, 101.
25. Bickerman, 254.
26. For a discussion of the Book of Job and a compendium of responses to it, see Nahum N. Glatzer, ed., The Dimensions of Job: A Study and Selected Readings (New York: Schocken, 1969).
27. Job 1:8 (KJV).
28. Job 2:9.
29. Job 3:11.
30. Job 19:7.
31. Job 16:2.
32. Job 21:7–11.
33. Job 29:5–23.
34. Job 24:2–12.
35. Job 24:14–21.
36. Job 7:15.
37. Job 7:9–11.
38. Job 38–39.
39. Job 41:27–29.
40. Job 42:3–6.
41. Martin Buber, The Prophetic Faith (New York: Harper, Torchbooks, 1949), 191.
42. Buber, 188.
43. Jack Miles, God: A Biography (New York: Vintage, 1995), 329.
44. On Ecclesiastes, see Tremper Longman III, The Book of Ecclesiastes (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998); James Crenshaw, Urgent Advice and Probing Questions: Collected Writings on Old Testament Wisdom (Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 1995); Crenshaw, “The Silence of Eternity: Ecclesiastes,” in A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 77–92; Robert Gordis, Koheleth—The Man and His World (New York: Schocken, 1978).
45. Eccles. 7:16–17 (KJV).
46. Eccles. 2:2.
47. Eccles. 2:16–17.
48. Eccles. 7:23–24.
49. Eccles. 2:18–19.
50. Eccles. 2:23.
51. Eccles. 3:1–9.
52. Eccles. 3:12.
53. Eccles. 3:19–22.
54. Eccles. 4:1.
55. Eccles. 4:2–4.
56. Eccles. 4:8–11.
57. Eccles. 9:9.
58. Eccles. 1:1–7.
59. Eccles. 1:9–11.
60. Eccles. 7:10.
61. Walter Kaufman wrote that we do not know “whether the author of Ecclesiastes retained any faith in God.” Kaufman, The Faith of a Heretic (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1968).
62. Eccles. 5:18–19.
63. Eccles. 5:1.
64. Eccles. 5:7.
65. Eccles. 9:4.
66. Eccles. 8:15.
67. Eccles. 9:14–15.
68. Eccles. 11:1.
69. Eccles. 11:5.
70. Eccles. 7:1–3.
71. Eccles. 7:4–5.
72. Eccles. 11:8.
73. Eccles. 9:5–6.
74. Crenshaw, Urgent Advice, 509.
CHAPTER THREE
1. Donald S. Lopez Jr., Asian Religions in Practice (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Readings in Religion, 1999), 48–50.
2. James Thrower, The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World (The Hague: Mouton, 1980), 63. Thrower offers a far-ranging history of Ancient Asian atheism and rationalism.
3. See “Carvaka,” in A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, ed. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1973), 227–249.
4. “Prabodha-Candrodaya,” in Sourcebook, ed. Radhakrishnan and Moore, 247.
5. Sarvasiddhantasasgraha, in Sourcebook, ed. Radhakrishnan and Moore, 234.
6. “Prabodha-Candrodaya,” 247.
7. Madhava Acarya’s Sarvadarsanasamgraha, in Sourcebook, ed. Radhakrishnan and Moore, 229.
8. Sarvasiddhantasasgraha, 235.
9. “Prabodha-Candrodaya,” 248.
10. “Prabodha-Candrodaya,” 248.
11. “Prabodha-Candrodaya,” 248.
12. Sarvasiddhantasasgraha, 233.
13. Sarvasiddhantasasgraha, 235.
14. Sarvasiddhantasasgraha, 233–234.
15. Ninian Smart, as cited in Thrower, The Alternative Tradition, 77.
16. See Thrower, 85.
17. Huston Smith, The World’s Religions (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 82.
18. The use of Reich to illustrate the Buddhist concept is from Mark Epstein, Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 19.
19. Nyanaponika Thera and Bhikkhu Bodi, trans. and eds., Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An Anthology of Suttas fom the Anguttara Nikaya (Oxford: Altamira, 1999), 72–73.
20. Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, 58.
21. Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, 194–195.
22. Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, 47.
23. Arthur C. Danto, Mysticism and Morality: Oriental Thoughts and Moral Philosophy (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1987), 82–83.
24. Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (New York: Vintage, 1989), 66.
25. Wing Tsit Chan, “On Nature,” as cited in Thrower, 119.
26. Wang Ch’ung, Lun-Hêng: Philosophical Essays of Wang Ch’ung, trans. and intro. Alfred Forke (New York: Paragon, 1962, reprint of 1907 ed.). Language here is slightly cleaned up following the guidance of a version of this text on the Web at: www.humanistictexts.org/wangchung.htm. On Wang Ch’ung see Forke’s introduction to the above work, 4–44; see also: “The Sceptical Philosophy of Wang Chhung,” in Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991, reprint of 1956 ed.), vol. 2, 368–395.
27. Wang Ch’ung, 92–93.
28. Wang Ch’ung, 166. Some editions translate this chapter as “Wrong Notions of Unhappiness.”
29. Wang Ch’ung, 349.
30. Wang Ch’ung, 228.
31. Wang Ch’ung, 182.
32. Wang Ch’ung, 335.
33. Wang Ch’ung, 346–347.
CHAPTER FOUR
1. Werner Jaeger, Early Christianity and Greek Paideia (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1961), 32.
2. See for instance: James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion. (London: Macmillan, 1890); and Arthur Darby Nock, Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (Oxford: Clarendon, 1933).
3. This revision began perhaps with: Keith Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977); and Simon Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984). See also: Mary Beard, John North, and Simon Price, Religions of Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).
4. Arnaldo Momigliano, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1987), 95.
5. Momigliano, 95.
6. Momigliano, 100.
7. Momigliano, 107.
8. Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, Horace C. P. McGregor, trans. (London: Penguin, 1972), 69, 70.
9. Cicero, 75.
10. Cicero, 77.
11. Cicero, 87.
12. Cicero, 91–92.
13. Cicero, 94.
14. Cicero, 108.
15. Cicero, 117.
16. Cicero, 120.
17. Cicero, 124.
18. Cicero, 129.
19. Cicero, 145.
20. Cicero, 130.
21. Cicero, 124.
22. Cicero, 152.
23. Cicero, 161.
24. Cicero, 162.
25. Cicero, 187.
26. Cicero, 132.
27. Cicero, 193.
28. Cicero, 194.
29. Cicero, 195.
30. Cicero, 197.
31. Cicero, 197.
32. Cicero, 201–202.
33. Cicero, 202.
34. Cicero, 206.
35. Cicero, 207–208.
36. Cicero, 209.
37. Cicero, 232.
38. Cicero, 234.
39. Cicero, 234.
40. To cite a master of the period who is of this opinion: “The essential point is that Cotta, as an Academic, finds himself in greater sympathy with the Epicureans than with the Stoics when it comes to deciding whether gods intervene in human life. Cotta is really as uncertain about the existence of the gods as he is about the immortality of the soul.” This scholar notes that Cicero has Cotta attribute Rome’s greatness to the observance of her rituals. “This is good enough, but very short and followed by a close argument for the impossibility of proving the existence of gods, to which there is no reply. The inescapable conclusion a reader was bound to draw from the end of the De natura deorum was that Cicero, with all due precautions, intended to be negative.” Momigliano, 69.
41. Momigliano, 72.
42. Cicero, 234.
43. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, trans. and ed. Anthony M. Esolen (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1995), 26–27.
44. Lucretius, 112.
45. Lucretius, 82.
46. Lucretius, 114–116.
47. Lucretius, 121.
48. Lucretius, 159.
49. Lucretius, 192.
50. Lucretius, 75–76.
51. Lucretius, 202.
52. Lucretius, 203.
53. Lucretius, 77.
54. Lucretius, 86–87.
55. Lucretius, 88.
56. Pliny the Elder, Natural History (London: Penguin, 1991), 13.
57. Pliny, 12.
58. Pliny, 13.
59. Pliny, 14.
60. Pliny, 103.
61. Pliny, 14.
62. Pliny, 103–104.
63. Marcus Aurelius, The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, trans. George Long (New York: Collier, 1909–1914), 71–72.
64. Marcus Aurelius, 77.
65. Marcus Aurelius, 23.
66. Marcus Aurelius, 73.
67. Marcus Aurelius, 77–78.
68. Marcus Aurelius, 22–23.
69. Marcus Aurelius, 72.
70. Marcus Aurelius, 79.
71. Marcus Aurelius, 80.
72. Marcus Aurelius, 82.
73. Marcus Aurelius, 22.
74. Marcus Aurelius, 73–74.
75. Marcus Aurelius, 61.
76. Marcus Aurelius, 24–25.
77. Marcus Aurelius, 22.
78. Marcus Aurelius, 72.
79. Marcus Aurelius, 81.
80. Marcus Aurelius, 72–73.
81. Sextus Empiricus, Selections from the Major Writings on Scepticism, Man, and God, ed. Philip P. Hallie and trans. Sanford G. Etheridge (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1985), 188.
82. Sextus Empiricus, 190.
83. Sextus Empiricus, 185.
84. Sextus Empiricus, 206.
85. Sextus Empiricus, 207.
86. Sextus Empiricus, 209.
87. Sextus Empiricus, 211.
88. Sextus Empiricus, 213.
89. Lucian, True History and Lucius or the Ass, trans. Paul Turner (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1974).
90. Lucian, 17.
CHAPTER FIVE
1. Hayim Ben-Sasson, ed., A History of the Jewish People (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976), 218–225.
2. Ben-Sasson, 288.
3. Ben-Sasson, 288–289.
4. Jerusalem Talmud Haggigah 1:7.
5. See E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus (London: Penguin, 1993), esp. 131. See also Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels (New York: Macmillan, 1977).
6. Sanders, 176, 230–234, 255–257.
7. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 122. See: Burton Mack, The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian Origins (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994) and John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993).
8. Matt. 26:38–39. Unless otherwise indicated, citations in this chapter refer to the New International Version.
9. Matt. 24:9–14; Mark 13:9–13; Luke 21:12–19.
10. Matt. 14:25–31.
11. Mark 9:21–24.
12. Matt. 17:20.
13. Mark 6:5–6 (KJV).
14. John 20:24–29.
15. Luke 24:36–43 (KJV).
16. Rom. 4:11.
17. Rom. 4:13–18.
18. Rom. 7:14–25.
19. Rom. 9:30–32.
20. Rom. 10:4.
21. Werner Jaeger, Early Christianity and Greek Paideia (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1961), 11.
22. Jaeger, 26–35.
23. On Plotinus, see Karen Armstrong, A History of God (New York: Knopf, 1993), esp. 101–102, 171, 175, 181.
24. Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Vintage, 1979), xix–xx.
25. Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1996), 73.
26. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1992), 109–110.
27. Augustine, Confessions, 130.
28. Augustine, Confessions, 131–132.
29. Augustine, Confessions, 145.
30. Augustine, Confessions, 147.
31. Augustine, Confessions, 150.
32. Augustine, Confessions, 151.
33. Augustine, Confessions, 152.
34. Augustine, Confessions, 153.
35. Augustine, De Trinitate, trans. E. Hill (New York: New City, 1991), 10.10.14, as cited in Simon Harrison, “Do We Have a Will?: Augustine’s Way into the Will,” in The Augustinian Tradition, ed. Gareth B. Matthews (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1999), 201.
36. Augustine, The City of God, trans. D. S. Wiesen (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988), 11.26, as cited in Harrison, 201.
37. Augustine, Teaching Christianity (On Christian Doctrine), ed. Edmund Hill (Hyde Park, NY: New City, 1996), 159–160, sec. 60, as cited in Edward Grant, God and Reason in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001), 37.
38. Augustine, Teaching Christianity, 153–154, sec. 48, as cited in Grant, 39.
39. Cited in Jonathan Barnes, “Boethius and the Study of Logic,” in Boethius: His Life, Thought and Influence, ed. Margaret Gibson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), 73.
40. Grant, 41.
41. Yer. Meg. i. 9.
42. 2:6, 7.
43. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Eruvin 53b.
44. Socrates Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History (London: S. Bagster and Sons, 1853), vol. 7, 15.
45. Brown, 46.
46. As cited in Brown, 97.
47. Armstrong, 131, 305–306.
48. Stephen Batchelor, The Faith to Doubt: Glimpses of Buddhist Uncertainty (Berkeley, CA: Paralax, 1990).
49. Batchelor, 40.
50. Keiji Nishitani, Religion and Nothingness, trans. Jan Van Bragt (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983), 16.
51. S. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1922), 536.
52. James Thrower, The Alternative Tradition (The Hague: Mouton, 1980), 83.
CHAPTER SIX
1. Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1996), 181.
2. Joel Kraemer, Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival During the Buyid Age (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986), vi, 189–190.
3. Karen Armstrong, A History of God (New York: Knopf, 1993), 173.
4. Sarah Stroumsa, Freethinkers of Medieval Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1999).
5. Stroumsa, 145–150.
6. Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies, S. M. Stern, ed., C. R. Barber and S. M. Stern, trans., 2 vols. (London, 1967–71), 363–364.
7. Cited in D. S. Margoliouth, “Atheism (Muhammadan),” in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, as cited in Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim (New York: Prometheus, 1995), 255.
8. Stroumsa, 43.
9. Stroumsa, 63.
10. Stroumsa, 83.
11. Stroumsa, 73.
12. Stroumsa, 47.
13. Stroumsa, 131–132.
14. Stroumsa, 90.
15. Stroumsa, 96.
16. Stroumsa, 96.
17. Stroumsa, 96.
18. Stroumsa, 98.
19. P. Kraus and S. Pines, “al-Razi,” The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 3.II (Leiden, 1913–1938), 1136, as cited in Stroumsa, 98.
20. As cited in Stroumsa, 99–100.
21. Stroumsa, 100.
22. Stroumsa, 103.
23. Stroumsa, 113.
24. As cited in Armstrong, 180.
25. Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 286.
26. Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1920), 176.
27. Nicholson, 110.
28. Nicholson, 173.
29. Nicholson, 190.
30. Nicholson, 191.
31. Nicholson, 167.
32. Nicholson, 174.
33. Nicholson, 174.
34. Nicholson, 177.
35. Nicholson, 177.
36. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, in The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali, trans. W. M. Watt (London: George Allen, 1951), 20.
37. Armstrong, 187.
38. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 21. See also the new translation Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error and Mystical Union with the Almighty, George F. McLean, ed., Muhammad Abulaylah, trans. (Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values & Philosophy, 2002), esp. 65–96.
39. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 23.
40. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 25.
41. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 26–27.
42. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 30.
43. Abulaylah, 74, translates this: “According to them, the animal issued from the sperm, and the sperm from the animal continuously. These are atheist (zanadiqa).”
44. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 33.
45. Al-Ghazzali, Deliverance from Error, 42.
46. Al-Ghazzali, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, in Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Arthur Hyman and James J. Walsh, eds. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1973), 298.
47. Al-Ghazzali, Incoherence of the Philosophers, 301.
48. Al-Ghazzali, Incoherence of the Philosophers, 302.
49. Al-Ghazzali, Incoherence of the Philosophers, 302.
50. Al-Ghazzali, Incoherence of the Philosophers, 310.
51. Saadia ben Joseph, The Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, in Philosophy in the Middle Ages, 344.
52. Ben Joseph, 348.
53. Moses Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed (New York: Dover, 1956), 314–315 (III, 28).
54. Maimonides, 173 (II, 13).
55. Maimonides, 172.
56. Maimonides, 87.
57. Maimonides, 89.
58. Maimonides, 87.
59. Maimonides, 85.
60. Maimonides, 85.
61. Maimonides, 384.
62. As cited in Marvin Fox, Interpreting Maimonides (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1990), 331.
63. Strousma, 222–238.
64. Gershom G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York: Schocken, 1941), 7–9.
65. Scholem, 139.
66. Granted by the International Astronomical Union at the beginning of the twentieth century.
67. Gersonides, The Wars of the Lord, ch. 3, in Philosophy in the Middle Ages, 434.
68. Gersonides, 434.
69. Edward Grant, God and Reason in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001), 87.
70. Grant, 101.
71. G. E. Hughes, intro. to his trans. of John Buridan on Self-Reliance (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982), 4, as cited in Grant, 127.
72. These are taken from Grant, 125–127, who takes them from several sources.
73. Grant, 179.
74. John E. Murdoch, “The Anayltic Character of Late Medieval Learning: Natural Philosophy Without Nature,” in Approaches to Nature in the Middle Ages, ed. Lawrence D. Roberts (Binghamton, NY: CMES, 1982).
75. Grant, 192.
76. Etienne Gilson, Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages (New York: Scribner, 1938), 64.
77. Grant, 190.
78. Grant wrote that out of 310 questions he investigated, in 217 of them one could not tell if the author was an atheist, a Christian, a Jew, or a Muslim. Only 10 actually discussed God or the faith. Grant, 186.
79. Grant, 199.
80. Nicholas of Autrecourt, “Letters to Bernard of Arezzo,” in Philosophy in the Middle Ages, 707–708. I’ve used “of your body” where this translator had “inside you.”
81. Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1979), 19.
CHAPTER SEVEN
1. Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (New York: Vintage, 1989), 106, 170.
2. Ikkyu, as cited in R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, ed. Frederick Franck (New York: Vintage, 1978), 144. See also Ikkyu, Crow with No Mouth, trans. Stephen Berg (Port Townsend, WA: Copper Canyon, 2000).
3. James Thrower, The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World (The Hague: Mouton, 1980), 88.
4. Diané Collinson, Kathryn Plant, and Robert Wilkinson, eds., Fifty Eastern Thinkers (London: Routledge, 2000), 279–280.
5. Samkhya Sutra Vrtti, as cited in Thrower, 88.
6. Edward Grant, God and Reason in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001), 294.
7. Grant, 295.
8. Grant, 295.
9. Petrarch, “An Averroist Visits Petrarca,” in The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, ed. Ernst Cassirer, Paul Oskar Kristeller, and John Herman Randall Cassirer Jr. (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1948), 141.
10. Don Cameron Allen, Doubt’s Boundless Sea (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1964; New York: Arno Press, 1979), 32.
11. Allen, 35.
12. David Wootton, “New Histories of Atheism,” in Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment, ed. Michael Hunter and David Wootton (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 32.
13. Nicholas Davidson, “Unbelief and Atheism in Italy, 1500–1700,” in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 68.
14. Erasmus, Praise of Folly, trans. Betty Radice (London: Penguin, 1993), 87.
15. Erasmus, 93.
16. Erasmus, 94.
17. Erasmus, 71.
18. As cited in Grant, 303.
19. Luther, De Servo Arbitrio, in Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation, trans. and ed. Philip S. Watson (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969), 109.
20. Luther, 109.
21. As cited in Allen, 7.
22. Lucien Febvre, The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais, trans. Beatrice Gottlieb (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1947), 192.
23. Febvre, translator’s preface, xi.
24. Febvre, 53–54.
25. Febvre, 56.
26. There were some exceptions, of course, but they tended to be maverick performances, like the odd and interesting Doubt’s Boundless Sea by Don Cameron Allen, noted above.
27. Karen Armstrong, A History of God (New York: Knopf, 1994), 286–287.
28. Susan Reynolds, “Social Mentalities and the Case of Medieval Scepticism,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser., 1 (1991), 25.
29. Reynolds, 35.
30. That book’s eleven authors all discuss writing the history of atheism with regard to Febvre’s nondoubting “mentalities,” and their convictions against his theory have helped to create the context I present here.
31. François Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel, trans. J. M. Cohen (London: Penguin, 1955), 37.
32. Rabelais, 544–545,
33. Rabelais, 193.
34. Rabelais, 194–195.
35. Febvre, 98.
36. Reynolds, 36.
37. Davidson, in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 64.
38. Davidson, 57.
39. Davidson, 66–79.
40. Davidson, 79.
41. As cited in Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1979), 27–28, 29.
42. Davidson, 63.
43. Davidson, 13–14.
44. Davidson, 44.
45. Davidson, 48.
46. Davidson, 52.
47. Davidson, 65.
48. Davidson, 67.
49. Davidson, 80.
50. Davidson, 75.
51. Davidson, 83.
52. Wootton, in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 29.
53. Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1980).
54. Ginzburg, 2.
55. Ginzburg, 4.
56. Ginzburg, 10.
57. Ginzburg, 6.
58. Ginzburg, 21.
59. Ginzburg, 47.
60. Ginzburg, 46.
61. Ginzburg, 42.
62. Ginzburg, 50.
63. Ginzburg, 11.
64. Ginzburg, 69.
65. Ginzburg, 65.
66. As cited in Davidson, in Hunter and Wootton, 58.
67. Giordano Bruno, The Ash Wednesday Supper (1584). La cena de le ceneri, Dial. I, pp. 1–2.
68. As cited in Davidson, 61.
69. Bruno, On Cause, Primary Origin, and the One. See Epicurus, “Letter to Herodotus,” in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1972), 591.
70. Davidson, 73–74.
71. As cited in Davidson, 77–78.
72. Michel de Montaigne, The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1958), 320–321.
73. Montaigne, 324–325.
74. Montaigne, 394.
75. Montaigne, 258.
76. Montaigne, 359.
77. Montaigne, 361.
78. Montaigne, 400.
79. Montaigne, 397.
80. Montaigne, 355, 356.
81. Montaigne, 438.
82. Montaigne, 355.
83. Montaigne, 377.
84. Montaigne, 413.
85. Montaigne, 424.
86. Montaigne, 428.
87. Montaigne, 455.
88. Montaigne, 456.
89. Montaigne, 423.
90. Montaigne, 426.
91. Montaigne, 429.
92. Montaigne, 373.
93. Montaigne, 375n, 393.
94. Montaigne, 428.
95. Montaigne, 436.
96. Montaigne, 429–430.
97. Montaigne, 430–431.
98. Montaigne, 362.
99. Montaigne, 445.
100. Montaigne, 457.
101. Popkin, 82.
102. Wootton, in Hunter and Wootton, 38.
103. Tullio Gregory, “Pierre Charron’s ‘Scandalous Book,’” in Hunter and Wootton, 87; Pierre Charron, Petit traicté de sages (Paris, 1635, first published 1606), 223–224, as cited by Gregory in Hunter and Wootton, 89.
104. As cited in Popkin, 79.
105. Popkin, 90.
106. Popkin, 214–228.
107. Popkin, 88.
108. Wootton, in Hunter and Wootton, 22.
CHAPTER EIGHT
1. René Descartes, Philosophical Works I (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975), 144.
2. Descartes, 145.
3. Descartes, 148.
4. Descartes, 151.
5. T. M. Rudavsky, “Galileo and Spinoza: Heroes, Heretics, and Hermeneutics,” Journal of the History of Ideas 62 (1951): 611–631.
6. Rudavsky, 613–615.
7. As cited in Nicholas Davidson, “Unbelief and Atheism in Italy, 1500–1700,” in Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment, ed. Michael Hunter and David Wootton (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 61.
8. Davidson, 62.
9. Rudavsky, 629–630.
10. Benedict de Spinoza, Ethics, James Gutmann, ed. (New York: Hafner, 1949), 76.
11. As cited in Don Garrett, “Spinoza’s Ethical Theory,” in The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza, ed. Don Garrett (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), 278.
12. As cited in W. N. A. Klever, “Spinoza’s Life and Work,” in Companion to Spinoza, ed. Garrett, 44.
13. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (New York: Penguin, 1968), 483.
14. Hobbes, 167–168.
15. Hobbes, 169.
16. Hobbes, 170.
17. Hobbes, 172–173.
18. David Berman, A History of Atheism in Britain: From Hobbes to Russell (London: Routlage, 1988), 49–50.
19. As cited in Berman, 59.
20. Blaise Pascal, Pensées (London: Penguin, 1995),122–123.
21. Pascal, 124.
22. Pascal, 129.
23. Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism fom Erasmus to Spinoza (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1979), 237.
24. Davidson, in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 83–84.
25. David Wootton, “New Histories of Atheism,” in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 30.
26. Peter Harrison, “Newtonian Science, Miracles, and the Laws of Nature,” Journal of the History of Ideas 56 (October 1995): 531–553.
27. Harrison, 540.
28. Thomas M. Lennon, Reading Bayle (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1999), 7.
29. Pierre Bayle, Historical and Critical Dictionary: Selections, trans. Richard Popkin (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1991), 119.
30. Bayle, 272.
31. Bayle, 288.
32. Bayle, 289–290.
33. Bayle, 290.
34. Bayle, 290.
35. Wootton, in Hunter and Wootton, 43.
36. Bayle, 340.
37. Popkin, Translator’s Introduction, in Bayle, xxi–xxii.
38. Bayle, 195.
39. Bayle, Translator’s Introduction, xxiii.
40. Bayle, The Dictionary Historical and Critical of Mr. Peter Bayle (London: J. J. and P. Knapton, 1734–38), vol. V, 440–441; as cited in Wootton in Hunter and Wootton, 13–15.
41. See Silvia Berti, “The First Edition of the Traité des trios imposteurs and Its Debt to Spinozas Ethics,” in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 182–220.
42. Berti, 218.
43. Berti, 214.
44. Berti, 214.
45. Berti, 186.
46. Popkin, History of Scepticism, 151–161.
47. David Berman, “Disclaimers as Offence Mechanisms in Charles Blount and John Toland,” in Atheism, ed. Hunter and Wootton, 269.
48. Berman, in Hunter and Wootton, 255.
49. Toland, Tetradymus (London, 1720), 72, as cited in Berman, Atheism in Britain, 75.
50. Toland, Tetradymus, 95, as cited in Berman, Atheism in Britain, 76.
51. See Wootton, in Hunter and Wootton, 40.
52. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 72.
53. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 82.
54. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 81.
55. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 81.
56. Michael Hunter, “Aikenhead the Atheist,” in Hunter and Wootton, 221.
57. Hunter, 224–225.
58. Hunter, 225.
59. Joanna Whaley-Cohen, The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History (New York: Norton, 1999), 110.
60. Whaley-Cohen, 110.
61. “Decree of Emperor Kangxi,” in Dan Li, trans., China in Transition, 1517–1911 (New York: Van Nostrand, 1969), 22–24.
62. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 80.
63. Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1994), 125.
64. Goodman, 74–75.
65. Bernard Fontenelle, A Conversation on the Plurality of Worlds (1686), The Origin of Fables (1724), Of the Island of Borneo (1686).
66. Goodman, 86.
67. Goodman, 89.
68. Voltaire, The Philosophical Dictionary (New York: Coventry House, 1932), 397.
69. Voltaire, 197.
70. Goodman, 77.
71. Denis Diderot, Diderot: Interpreter of Nature (Westport, CT: Hyperion, 1937), 218.
72. Diderot, 225.
73. Diderot, 226.
74. Diderot, 228.
75. Diderot, 227.
76. Diderot, “Dithyrambe sur la fête de rois.”
77. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: A Letter from a Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1977), 93.
78. Hume, 97.
79. Berman, Atheism in Britain, 102.
80. Alan Charles Kors, “The Atheism of d’Holbach and Naigeon,” in Hunter and Wootton, 292.
81. Baron d’Holbach, System of Nature, vol. 2, ch. 2, excerpted in Varieties of Unbelief: From Epicurus to Sartre, ed. J. C. A. Gaskin (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989), 92.
82. Holbach, ch. 8, as cited in Gaskin, 95.
83. Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (New York: Modern Library, 1954), 1:406.
84. Gibbon, 1:406.
85. Gibbon, 1:407.
86. J. Y. T. Grieg, The Letters of David Hume, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969), 2:310.
87. Gibbon, 1:504.
88. Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 1984), 9.
89. Paine, 13.
90. Paine, 13.
91. Paine, 11–12.
92. Paine, 12.
93. Thomas Jefferson, “To William Short, October 31, 1819,” in A Jefferson Profile: As Revealed in His Letters, ed. Saul K. Padover (New York: John Day, 1956), 306.
94. Jefferson, “To William Short, August 4, 1820,” in The Works of Thomas Jefferson, H. A Washington, ed. (New York: Townsend, 1884), vol. 2, 217.
95. Thomas Jefferson, “To Peter Carr, August 10, 1787,” in Basic Writing of Thomas Jefferson, Philip S. Foner, ed. (New York: Wiley, 1944), 561. Carr was one of Jefferson’s favorite nephews.
96. Jefferson, “To Peter Carr,” 562.
97. Jefferson, “To William Short, August 4, 1820,” 2:217.
98. It was written by Joel Barlow, U.S. Consul.
99. From The American Enlightenment: The Shaping of the American Experiment and a Free Society, ed. Adrienne Koch (New York: G. Braziller, 1965), 234.
100. Peter Mercer-Taylor, The Life of Mendelssohn (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000), 8.
101. Mercer-Taylor, 206.
102. Mercer-Taylor, 12.
103. Moses Mendelssohn, Jerusalem, or On Religious Power and Judaism, Allan Arkush, trans., Alexander Altmann, intro. and comment. (Hanover: published for Brandeis Univ. Press by University Press of New England, 1983), 35.
104. Mendelssohn, 59.
105. Mendelssohn, 61.
106. Mendelssohn, 63.
107. Mendelssohn, 73.
108. Mendelssohn, 74.
109. Mendelssohn, 89.
110. Mendelssohn, 90.
111. Mendelssohn, 90.
112. Mendelssohn, 94.
113. Mendelssohn, 95.
114. Mendelssohn, 97–98.
115. Mendelssohn, 100.
116. Mendelssohn, 111, 115, 117.
117. Mendelssohn, 133.
118. Jerusalem Talmud Haggigah 1:7.
119. Mendelssohn, 137, 138.
120. Mendelssohn, 139.
121. There is some confusion as to his dates, but this seems right; see Keiji Nishitani, Religion and Nothingness, trans. Jan Van Bragt (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983), 20.
122. Nishitani, 20–21.
CHAPTER NINE
1. Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity, trans. George Eliot (New York: Harper, Torchbooks, 1957), 277.
2. David Berman, “Disclaimers as Offence Mechanisms in Charles Blount and John Toland,” in Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment, ed. Michael Hunter and David Wootton (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 234.
3. Peter Mercer-Taylor, The Life of Mendelssohn (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000), 16.
4. As cited in Mercer-Taylor, 31.
5. As cited in Mercer-Taylor, 32.
6. Heinrich Heine, Gedanken und Einfalle, vol. 10.
7. Heine, as cited in Joseph Ratner, “Introduction,” in The Philosophy of Spinoza: Selections from His Works (New York: Modern Library, 1927).
8. See W. Gunther Plaut, The Rise of Reform Judaism: A Sourcebook of Its European Origins (New York: World Union for Progressive Judaism, 1963), 22.
9. “Metz, 1841, A Public Appeal (31 Jewish Householders),” in Plaut, 45.
10. “Metz, 1841,” in Plaut, 45.
11. “Metz, 1841” in Plaut, 44.
12. “The Status of Women—No Spiritual Minority, Abraham Geiger,” in Plaut, 253.
13. “Status of Women,” in Plaut, 254.
14. See Plaut, 243–255.
15. See Plaut, 99.
16. See Plaut, 205.
17. Cited in full in David Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism (Jersey City, NJ: KTAV, 1967), 354–357.
18. Anne Newport Royall, Letters from Alabama, 1817–1822 (Birmingham: Univ. of Alabama Press, 1969), 176.
19. Royall, Black Book (Washington, DC, 1828), vol. 1, 163.
20. Royall, Black Book, 165.
21. Royall, Black Book, 240–241.
22. Royall, Letters from Alabama, 218–219.
23. Royall, Black Book, 195.
24. Royall, Black Book, 194.
25. George Stuyvesant Jackson, Uncommon Scold: The Story of Anne Royall (Boston: B. Humphries, 1937).
26. John Stuart Mill, The Autobiography of John Stuart Mill (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1924), 30.
27. Mill, Autobiography, 28.
28. Mill, Autobiography, 33.
29. Mill, On Liberty, ed. Edward Alexander (Toronto: Broadview, 1999), 108.
30. Mill, On Liberty, 113.
31. Harriet Martineau, Autobiography, ed. Maria Weston Chapman (Boston: James R. Osgood, 1877), 1:28.
32. Harriet Martineau, with Henry George Atkinson, On the Laws of Mans Nature and Development (Boston: Josiah P. Mendum, 1851), 222–223.
33. Martineau, Autobiography, 2:110.
34. Martineau, Autobiography, 1:30.
35. Martineau, Autobiography, 1:89.
36. Martineau, Autobiography, 2:45–46.
37. Martineau, Autobiography, 2:46.
38. Cited in Women Without Superstition, “No Gods—No Masters”: The Collected Writings of Women Freethinkers of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Annie Laurel Gaylor (Madison, WI: Freedom from Religion Foundation, 1997), 49.
39. Martineau, Autobiography, 2:104–107.
40. Peter M. Rinaldo, Atheists, Agnostics, and Deists in America: A Brief History (New York: DorPete, 2000), 55.
41. Fanny Wright, A Few Days in Athens (New York: Arno Press, 1972), 211.
42. Wright, Views of Society and Manners in America, ed. Paul R. Baker (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1963), 224.
43. Robert Owen, The Life of Robert Owen, Written by Himself (New York: A. M. Kelly, 1967), 1:206–207.
44. Wright, “Divisions of Knowledge,” in her Life, Letters, and Lectures, 1834/1844 (New York: Arno, 1972).
45. Wright, “Divisions of Knowledge,” 73–74.
46. Wright, “Religion,” in Life, Letters, and Lectures, 1834/1844.
47. “Ernestine Rose,” in The History of Women’s Suffrage, ed. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage (Rochester, NY: Source Book Press, 1971), 1:661–663.
48. “Ernestine Rose,” 1:663.
49. Ernestine Rose, “A Defense of Atheism,” in Women Without Superstition, ed. Gaylor, 77.
50. Rose, 81.
51. Rose, 85.
52. Rose, 85.
53. Karl Heinrich Marx, “The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature,” in Norman D. Livergood, Activity in Marx’s Philosophy (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1967), 61.
54. Marx, “The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature,” 62.
55. From Marx’s introduction to “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right” (1844), as cited in Varieties of Unbelief: From Epicurus to Satre, ed. J. C. A. Gaskin (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989), 158.
56. As cited in Gaskin, 158.
57. Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975), 65.
58. “Stanton to Anthony,” January 24, 1856, Library of Congress; as cited in Women Without Superstition, ed. Gaylor, 106.
59. Stanton, “Antislavery” (1860), as cited in Women’s Suffrage, ed. Stanton, Anthony, and Gage, 2:187.
60. Stanton, “Women’s Position in the Christian Church” (1888), as cited in Gaylor, 113.
61. Stanton, “The Universal Creed” (1869), in Gaylor, 137.
62. Stanton, “The Pleasures of Age” (1885), in Gaylor, 150.
63. Stanton, Anthony, and Gage, 1:100.
64. Stanton, Anthony, and Gage, 1:422.
65. “Stanton to Antoinette Brown Blackwell, June 10, 1873,” in Elizabeth Cady Stanton as Revealed in Her Letters, Diary and Reminiscences, ed. Theodore Stanton and Harriot Stanton Blatch (New York: Harper, 1922), 2:142.
66. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Correspondence, Writings, Speeches, ed. Ellen Carol DuBois (New York: Schocken, 1981), 246–255.
67. Stanton, “Women’s Position in the Christian Church” (1888), 119.
68. Stanton, “Women’s Position,” 124.
69. Stanton, “Women’s Position,” 107.
70. Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, trans. E. F. J. Payne, 2 vols. (New York: Dover, 1969), 2:161–162.
71. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:420.
72. Schopenhauer, The World, 2:357.
73. Schopenhauer, The World, 2:354.
74. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:326.
75. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:419.
76. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:357.
77. Schopenhauer, The World, 2:586.
78. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:375.
79. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:422.
80. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:361–362.
81. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:407.
82. Schopenhauer, The World, 1:367.
83. Schopenhauer, The World, 2:47.
84. Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), 288.
85. Schopenhauer, Religion: A Dialogue and Other Essays, 3d ed., trans. T. Bailey Saunders (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1973), 4.
86. Schopenhauer, Religion, 4.
87. Schopenhauer, Religion, 4–5.
88. Schopenhauer, Religion, 5.
89. Schopenhauer, “On the Sufferings of the World,” in his Studies in Pessimism (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925), 34.
90. Schopenhauer, Religion, 5–6.
91. Schopenhauer, Religion, 21.
92. Schopenhauer, Religion, 51.
93. Søren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling (London: Penguin Books, 1985), 103.
94. Kierkegaard, 63.
95. Kierkegaard, 67.
96. Kierkegaard, 133.
97. Kierkegaard, 135.
98. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1974), 125.
99. Nietzsche, Daybreaks, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982), 89.
100. Adrian Desmond, The Politics of Evolution (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1989), 9.
101. Desmond, 46.
102. Stephen J. Gould, Ever Since Darwin (New York: Norton, 1977), 25.
103. Gould, 26.
104. Chadwick, 176.
105. Chadwick, 166.
106. Chadwick, 171.
107. Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism, and Anthropology in France (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2003).
108. Thomas Huxley, “Mr. Balfour’s Attack on Agnosticism I,” The Nineteenth Century 217 (March 1895): 534.
19. Huxley, “Mr. Balfour’s Attack,” 530.
110. Huxley, “On Descartes’ Discourse Touching the Method of Using One’s Reason Rightly and of Seeking Scientific Truth” (1870), in his Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews (New York: Appleton, 1910), 322–323.
111. Huxley, “Mr. Balfour’s Attack,” 529.
112. James Strick, ed., Evolution and the Spontaneous Generation Debate (Bristol: Thoemmes, 2001).
113. Auguste Comte, A General View of Positivism, trans. J. H. Bridges (London: Routledge, 1957), 35–36.
114. Comte, 36.
115. Comte, 50.
116. Comte, 51.
117. Comte, 52.
118. Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary, trans. Geoffrey Wall (London: Penguin, 1992), 61.
119. Flaubert, 61.
120. Flaubert, 270.
121. Jules Ferry, Revue pédagogique (1882), as cited in Hecht, End of the Soul, 52.
122. René Rémond, L’anticlericalism en France de 1815 à nos jours (Paris: Fayard, 1976), 173.
123. Emile Durkheim, “Représentations individuelles et représentations collectives,” Revue de métaphysique et de morale 5 (1898): 273–302.
124. James M. Edie, James Scanlan, and Mary-Barbara Zeldin, eds., Russian Philosophy: The Nihilists, the Populists, Critics of Religion and Culture (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1965), 2:3–10.
125. David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, trans. Marian Evans (New York: Blanchard, 1860).
126. Leslie Stephen, Essays on Free Thinking and Plain Speaking (London: Longmans, 1873).
127. Virginia Woolf, Moments of Being ed. Jeanne Schulkind (London: Hogarth, 1985), 72; and “Letter to Lady Robert Cecil, 12 November 1922,” in The Question of Things Happening: The Letters of Virginia Woolf ed. Nigel Nicolson (London: Hogarth, 1982), 2:585.
128. Charles Bradlaugh, Doubts in Dialogue (London: Watts, 1909), 9–10.
129. Bradlaugh, A Plea for Atheism (London: Freethought, 1880), 4.
130. C. Cohen, Bradlaugh and Ingersoll (London: Pioneer, 1933), 57, cited in David Berman, A History of Atheism in Britain (London: Routledge, 1988), 215.
131. Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh, The Freethinker’s Text Book (London: Freethought, 1881), 426, 476.
132. Arthur Bonner and Charles Bradlaugh Bonner, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner: The Story of Her Life (London: Watts & Co., 1942), 117, 119.
133. Robert G. Ingersoll, “Why I Am an Agnostic,” in Ingersoll, Works, ed. Clinton P. Farrell (New York: Dresden, 1902), 4:45.
134. Ingersoll, On Gods and Other Essays (Buffalo: Prometheus, 1990), 54–55.
135. Frederick Douglass, “The Meaning of Fourth of July for the Negro” (1852), in Oration, Delivered in Corinthian Hall, Rochester (Rochester, NY: Lee, Mann, 1852), 29.
136. Douglass, 30.
137. Boston Investigator, September 19, 1896, as cited in Women Without Superstition, 376.
138. Etta Semple, “Liberty of Conscience Is All That We Ask,” The Free-thought Ideal, ca. 1898, as cited in Women Without Superstition, 325.
139. As cited in Women Without Superstition, 295.
140. As cited in Women Without Superstition, 295.
141. Lucy N. Colman, The Truth Seeker, February 19, 1887.
142. A. Car el, Histoire anecdotique des contemporains (Paris, 1885), 46.
143. They included such figures as Richard Carlile, Matthew Turner, Thomas Cooper, and Samuel Francis. Berman, 110–134.
144. Percy Bysshe Shelley, “The Necessity of Atheism,” in The Necessity of Atheism and Other Essays (Buffalo: Prometheus, 1993), 31.
145. Shelley, “Necessity of Atheism,” 43.
146. The Necessity of Atheism, 44.
147. Shelley, “On a Future State,” in Necessity of Atheism and Other Essays, 56–60.
148. Shelley, “On a Future State,” 58.
149. Shelley, “Refutation of Deism,” in Necessity of Atheism and Other Essays, 88.
150. Shelley, Queen Mab, in Complete Poems (New York: Book of the Month Club, 1993), 21–22.
151. Rinaldo, 69.
152. Margaret Fuller, Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli (Boston: Phillips, Sampson, 1852), 90.
153. Fuller, Summer on the Lakes (Boston: Charles Little & James Brown, 1844), 194.
154. Emily Dickinson, The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), (#1144) 512.
155. Dennis Donoghue, Emily Dickinson (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1969), 14.
156. Donoghue, 15.
157. Dickinson, The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 646. Poem quoted is #1551, ca. 1882.
158. Thomas Hardy, “God’s Funeral,” in The Collected Poems of Thomas Hardy (New York: Macmillan, 1974).
CHAPTER TEN
1. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuinness (London: Routledge, 1974).
2. Thomas Mann, Thoughts of an Unpolitical Man (New York: F. Unger, 1983).
3. V. I. Lenin, Socialism and Religion (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing, 1954), 6.
4. Lenin, 7.
5. Grace Ellison’s Turkey Today (London: Hutchinson, 1928), 24, includes statements from Ataturk that seem to have been made to Ellison; as cited in Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook, 2000), 463.
6. Mango, 45.
7. Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996), 13.
8. Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism: Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965), 147, 150.
9. Nolte, 14.
10. Nolte, 20.
11. Nolte, 21.
12. Nolte, 27.
13. Nolte, 36.
14. Nolte, 80.
15. Nolte, 70.
16. Gentile, 17.
17. George Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990), 7.
18. Mosse, 7.
19. Mosse, 45.
20. Thomas Edison interview, New York Times, October 2, 1910, sec. 5, p. 1.
21. M. C. Nerney, Edison, Modern Olympian, 252, as cited in Matthew Josephson, Edison: A Biography (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), 438.
22. As cited in Josephson, 438.
23. Hubert Harrison, “Paine’s Place in the Deistical Movement,” The Truth Seeker 38, no. 6 (February 11, 1911): 87–88; in A Hubert Harrison Reader, ed. Jeffrey R. Perry (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 2001), 40.
24. Harrison, “Paine’s Place,” 40.
25. Harrison, “Paine’s Place,” 41.
26. Harrison, “Paine’s Place,” 42.
27. Harrison, “Paine’s Place,” 38.
28. Harrison, “Paine’s Place,” 39.
29. Harrison, When Africa Awakes (New York: Porro, 1920), 76.
30. Jeffrey Perry, “Introduction,” in Hubert Harrison Reader, 2.
31. Perry, 2.
32. Perry, 36.
33. Emma Goldman, “The Philosophy of Atheism” (Mother Earth, 1916) in Goldman, The Philosophy of Atheism and the Failure of Christianity (New York: Mother Earth, 1916), 5.
34. Goldman, “The Failure of Christianity” (Mother Earth, 1913), in Goldman, The Philosophy of Atheism and the Failure of Christianity, 9.
35. Goldman, “The Philosophy of Atheism,” 7.
36. Goldman, Voltairine De Cleyre (Berkeley Heights, NJ: Oriole, 1932).
37. Margaret Sanger, Margaret Sanger: An Autobiography (New York: Dover, 1971), 22.
38. Sanger, 23.
39. Mark Twain, The Bible According to Mark Twain: Irreverent Writings on Eden, Heaven, and the Flood by America’s Master Satirist (New York: Simon & Schuster, Touchstone, 1996).
40. Twain, 240.
41. Twain, 243.
42. Twain, 244.
43. Twain, 252.
44. Twain, 252.
45. Twain, 318.
46. Twain, 328.
47. Twain, 323.
48. Twain, 323.
49. Twain, 330–331.
50. As cited in Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997), 20–21 and see also 32.
51. Larson, 20.
52. Clarence Darrow, “Why I Am an Agnostic” in Why I Am an Agnostic and Other Essays (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 1995), 11.
53. Darrow, 12.
54. Darrow, 19.
55. Terry Teachout, The Skeptic: A Life of H. L. Mencken (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).
56. Ronald W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: Avon, 1984), 502.
57. Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein, the Human Side: New Glimpses from His Archives (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1979), 43.
58. Dukas and Hoffman, 40.
59. Dukas and Hoffman, 39.
60. Michael White and John Gribbin, Einstein: A Life in Science (New York: Dutton, 1994), 262.
61. Philip Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1959), 258.
62. Rieff, 70.
63. Rieff, 24.
64. Rieff, 36.
65. Rieff, 271.
66. Rieff (295) says, “I should guess that Freud had read it, so closely does his own dialogue in The Future of an Illusion follow it.”
67. Sigmund Freud, The Future of an Illusion, ed. Peter Gay (New York: Norton, 1961), 26.
68. Freud, 21.
69. Freud, 34.
70. Freud, 42.
71. Freud, 41.
72. Freud, 41.
73. Freud, 41.
74. Freud, 59.
75. Freud, 59.
76. Freud, 62–63.
77. Freud, 68.
78. Rieff, 257.
79. Gay, “About This Book,” in Freud, Future of an Illusion, xxiii.
80. Bertrand Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays, ed. Paul Edwards (London: Unwin, 1957), 15.
81. Russell, Not a Christian, 19.
82. Russell, Not a Christian, 26.
83. Russell, “Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?” in Russell, Atheism: Collected Essays (New York: Arno & New York Times, 1972), 5.
84. Russell, Human Society in Ethics and Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1954), 208.
85. Russell, What I Believe (New York: Dutton, 1925), 13.
86. Dora Black Russell, The Religion of the Machine Age, 236, as cited in Women Without Superstition, “No Gods—No Masters”: The Collected Writings of Women Freethinkers of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Annie Laurel Gaylor (Madison, W1: Freedom from Religion Foundation, 1997), 427.
87. The formulation is from Hans Sluga, “Ludwig Wittgenstein: Life and Work,” in The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein, ed. Hans Sluga and David G. Stern (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), 22.
88. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958), 109.
89. Wittgenstein, On Certainty (New York: Harper, Torchbooks, 1972), 18.
90. Avrum Stroll, Wittgenstein (Oxford: One World, 2002), 145.
91. Wittgenstein, “Lectures on Religious Beliefs,” in Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief, ed. Cyril Barrett (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1966), 55.
92. Wittgenstein, On Certainty, 32.
93. Jean-Paul Sartre, “Existentialism,” in Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre, ed. Walter Kaufman (New York: Meridian, 1975), 349.
94. Sartre, “Existentialism,” 349.
95. Sartre, “Existentialism,” 350.
96. Sartre, No Exit, trans. Paul Bowles (New York: Samuel French, 1958), 52.
97. Sartre, War Diaries: Notebooks from a Phoney War, trans. Quintin Hoare (London: Verso, 1984), 70.
98. Sartre, War Diaries, 71–72.
99. Sartre, War Diaries, 72.
100. Simone de Beauvoir, Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter (Cleveland: World, 1959), 1:144–145.
101. Beauvoir, 1:202.
102. Albert Camus, “The Myth of Sisyphus,” in Kaufman, Existentialism, 377.
103. Camus, 377.
104. Camus, 377.
105. Camus, 378.
106. Camus, 378.
107. Milton Steinberg, A Driven Leaf (Springfield, NJ: Behrman House, 1939), 21, 23.
108. Steinberg, 168.
109. Steinberg, 200, 202.
110. Steinberg, 136.
111. Steinberg, 250.
112. Steinberg, 304.
113. Steinberg, 474.
114. Elie Wiesel, Night, trans. Stella Rodway (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1981), 45.
115. Wiesel, 76–77.
116. Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square, 1959), 95.
117. Frankl, 121.
118. Gershom G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York: Schocken, 1941), 7.
119. Margarete Susman, “God the Creator,” in The Dimensions of Job: A Study and Selected Readings, ed. Nahum N. Glatzer (New York: Schocken, 1969), 86–92.
120. Susman, 92.
121. Susman, 88.
122. Walter Kaufman, The Faith of a Heretic (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1968), 167.
123. Kaufman, 168.
124. Richard L. Rubenstein, After Auschwitz: Radical Theology and Contemporary Judaism (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966).
125. Rubenstein had first published many of the essays in After Auschwitz in the journal The Reconstructionist.
126. Used by permission of Jackie Mason. For more on Mason’s rejection of religion see: Mason, with Ken Gross, Jackie, Oy!: Jackie Mason from Birth to Rebirth (New York: Little, Brown, 1988), 25–42.
127. Interview transcript by Mason and Elli Wohlgelernter, July–August 1988, Jackie Mason, Oral History Library (American Jewish Committee, New York Public Library), tape 3, 199.
128. Woody Allen, “My Philosophy,” The New Yorker, December 27, 1969; see also his Getting Even (1971).
129. Rep. Charles G. Oakman, Congressional Record, Appendix, p. A2527.
130. Congressional Record, House, February 12, 1954, p. 1700.
131. Congressional Record, House, June 7, 1955, pp. 7795–7796.
132. “Madalyn Murray Interview,” by Richard Tregaskis, Playboy, October 1965.
133. “Interview: O’Hair on Church and State,” Freedom Writer, March–May 1989.
134. Margaret Knight, Morals Without Religion: And Other Essays (London: Dobson, 1955), 14.
135. Knight, 35.
136. As cited in Edward E. Ericson Jr., “Living Responsibly: Vaclav Havel’s View,” Religion and Liberty 8 (September–October 1998).
137. Martin Baumann, “Buddhism in Europe,” in Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia, eds. Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002), 88.
138. Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, eds., Westward Dharma (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002), 87.
139. D. T. Suzuki, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism (New York: Grove, 1991), Preface.
140. Rick Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America (Boston & London: Shambhala, 1992), 83–166.
141. See Stephen Batchelor, The Faith to Doubt: Glimpses of Buddhist Uncertainty (Berkeley, CA: Paralax, 1990), 14–17.
142. Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind: Informal Talks on Zen Meditation and Practice (New York: Weatherhill, 1970), 21.
143. Bernard Glassman and Rick Fields, Instructions to the Cook: A Zen Master’s Lessons in Living a Life That Matters (New York: Bell Tower, 1996), 51.
144. Bernard Glassman, Bearing Witness: A Zen Master’s Lessons in Making Peace (New York: Bell Tower, 1998), xiv.
145. The last two, in full, are “Bearing witness to the joy and suffering of the world” and “Loving action toward ourselves and others.”
146. Westward Dharma, 333.
147. Batchelor, Faith to Doubt, 44.
148. Batchelor, Faith to Doubt, 45.
149. Stephen Batchelor, Buddhism Without Beliefs: A Contemporary Guide to Awakening (New York: Riverhead, 1997), xiii, as cited in Westward Dharma, 332.
150. Its founders included Ruth Denison, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield.
151. Mark Epstein, Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 57.
152. By Hasan Lâhûtî in 1995.
153. Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1920), viii.
154. Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 145.
155. Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 166. Nicholson again likens al-Ma’arri to Lucian in his Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1930), 318–319.
156. Nicholson, Islamic Poetry, 44.
157. Salman Rushdie, “In God We Trust,” in his Imaginary Homelands (London: Granta, 1991), 376–432.
158. Rushdie, “In God We Trust,” 380.
159. taslimanasrin.com, consulted December 9, 2002.
160. Taslima Nasrin interview, by Matt Cherry and Warren Allen Smith, Free Inquiry 19 (Winter 1998/1999).
161. “Open Letter from Salman Rushdie to Taslima Nasrin,” New York Times, July 14, 1994.
162. Esther B. Fein, “Rushdie, Defying Death Threats, Suddenly Appears in New York,” New York Times, December 12, 1991.
163. Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim (New York: Prometheus, 1995), xiii.
164. Ibn Warraq, xiv.
165. Ibn Warraq, 33.
166. Ibn Warraq, 14.
167. Ibn Warraq, 141.
168. Ibn Warraq, 33.
169. Ibn Warraq, xv.
170. Ibn Warraq, 32.
171. Ibn Warraq, 283.
172. Ibn Warraq, 283.
173. “Ibn Warraq: Why I Am Not a Muslim,” interviewed by Lyn Gallacher, October 10, 2001, ABC Radio National Website.
174. Also important in this work are John Wansbrough of the School of Oriental and African Studies in London; Patricia Crone, professor of history at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton; Michael Cook, professor of Near Eastern history at Princeton University; and Fred M. Donner of the University of Chicago.
175. Steven Weinberg, Facing Up: Science and Its Cultural Adversaries (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001), 119–120.
176. Steven Weinberg, 119–120.
177. Isaac Asimov, in Free Inquiry, Spring 1982, p. 9.
178. Harlan Ellison, on the Tom Snyder show Tomorrow.
179. Douglas Adams, interview by David Silverman, The American Atheist 37, no. 1, in Adams, The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time (New York: Ballantine Books, 2003), 96.
180. Barbara Ehrenreich, “My Family Values Atheism,” article adapted from the acceptance speech for the 1999 Freethought Heroine Award. Freethought Today, April 2000. On the Web, see www.ffrf.org/fttoday/april2000/ehrenreich.html
181. Barbara Ehrenreich, The Worst Years of Our Lives: Irreverent Notes from a Decade of Greed (New York: Pantheon Books, 1990), 5. This is a fanciful piece; for more serious notes on her background, see pp. 7–11.
182. Katha Pollitt, “No God, No Master” in her Subject to Debate: Sense and Dissents on Women, Politics, and Culture (New York: Random House, 2001), 87–90.
183. Natalie Angier, “Confessions of a Lonely Atheist,” New York Times Magazine, January 14, 2001, 36.
184. Katharine Hepburn, interview, Ladies’ Home Journal, October 1991, 215.
185. Karen Armstrong, A History of God (New York: Knopf, 1993), 377–399, esp. 397.
186. Quentin Crisp, How to Become a Virgin (New York: Saint Martin’s Press, 1981), 102.